Page 325 - Encyclopedia Of World History Vol IV

1626 berkshire encyclopedia of world history

Plan of Pompeii.
Archaeological
excavation of the buried
city provided much
valuable information
about life in ancient
Rome.

The expansion also led to the
breakdown of the republic’s
institutions.As Rome’s military
commitments expanded, the
willingness of its propertied cit-
izens to serve in long cam-
paigns far afield declined. In
107 BCE military service was
made voluntary, and proper-
tyless citizens (the proletarii)
were allowed to enlist. Fighting
under a successful general, the poor could achieve at least Open war between the rivals broke out in 33 BCE and
the possibility of upward economic mobility. Goods dis- ended with the suicide of Marc Antony and his ally
tributed by commanding officers to their men included Cleopatra, whereas Octavian returned to Rome in tri-
salaries, plunder, gifts, and plots of land parceled out umph. In 28 BCE the Senate appointed him its princeps
from conquered colonies. Not surprisingly, loyalty to the (leader) and in 27 BCE gave him the new title of “Augus-
general replaced loyalty to the state. tus,” signifying his supreme authority over the state.
As a result, the first century BCE was marked by a suc- These new titles in effect created for Augustus (as Octa-
cession of civil wars between Roman generals competing vian was henceforth addressed) the constitutional power
for dictatorial power over the state. These wars culmi- of dictator for life. Although the old institutions and
nated in the conflicts between Julius Caesar and Pompey offices of the republic remained in place, Augustus now
(49–46 BCE) and Marc Antony and Octavian (33–30 wielded a permanent sovereignty over all aspects of the
BCE).These wars were fought across the entire expanse of state, including the Senate, consuls, assemblies, tribunes,
Rome’s empire, from Spain through Italy to Egypt, and and armies. When he died in 14 CE, Augustus was able
ended in the permanent imposition of monarchic rule to pass on his office to his designated successor,Tiberius
upon the Roman state. (reigned 14–37 CE).
The form of government established by Augustus is
The Principate known as the “principate.” Although the legal authority of
After Julius Caesar had defeated the last supporters of his the princeps was absolute, Augustus and his successors
rival Pompey, the Senate embraced the ensuing peace and allowed much of the day-to-day administration of the
made Caesar dictator for life in 44 BCE.Although he was state and its empire to remain in the hands of officers and
assassinated two months later by patrician conspirators institutions carried over from the republican period.
claiming they were defending the constitution of the Under the first two dynasties, the Julio-Claudians (14–68
republic, Caesar’s popularity among his soldiers ensured CE) and the Flavians (69–96 CE), periods of apparent
that the period of uncertainty led not to a restoration of instability did not prevent the system established by
rule by the Senate and popular assemblies but rather to Augustus from remaining intact. Despite the excesses
a power struggle between two claimants to the command attributed by contemporaries to Caligula (reigned 37–41
of Caesar’s troops and political authority: his lieutenant CE), Nero (reigned 54–68 CE), and Domitian (reigned
Marc Antony and his adopted son Octavian. 81–96 CE), the administrative structures of the principate