Page 166 - Encyclopedia Of World History Vol V

war and peace—overview 1943

Ibadi-Wangara communities produced an influential Blanchard, I. (2001). Mining, metallurgy, and minting in the Middle Ages.
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Devisse, J. (1988).Trade and trade routes in West Africa. In M. El Fasi &
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reforms of the Berber Almoravid dynasty in North Africa
Holl,A. (1985). Background to the Ghana empire: Archaeological inves-
(1039/40–1147). The ruling dynasty and the political tigations on the transition to statehood in the Dhar Tichitt region
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Arabic sources for West African history. Princeton, NJ: Markus Wiener
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ern trans-Saharan routes up to the Maghrib).Thus, Islam McIntosh, R. (1998). The peoples of the Middle Niger. Malden, MA: Black-
became the state religion of Wagadu.The inhabitants of well Publishers.
McIntosh, S. K. (1981). A reconsideration of Wangara/Palolus, island of
the capital’s Muslim section were Kharijites and Sunni gold. The Journal of African History, 22, 145–158.
Maliki believers. In the course of the twelfth and thir- McIntosh, S. (Ed.). (1995). Excavations at Jenné-Jeno, Hambarketolo, and
Kaniana (Inland Niger Delta, Mali), the 1981 season. Berkeley and
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faithful. The Almoravid-Wagadu connection had both a Messier, J. A. (2001). The Almoravids, West African gold, and the gold
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1137 and 1154, the Andalusian geographer al-Zuhri Miller, J. A. (2001).Trading through Islam: The interconnections of Sijil-
refers to prominent Wagadu scholars, lawyers, and Quran masa, Ghana, and the Almoravid movement. The Journal of North
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readers in Andalusian towns. He also mentions the
Pingree, D. (1970). The fragments of the works of Al-Fazari. Journal of
Wagadu army commanders who traveled to al-Andalus Near Eastern Studies, 29, 103–23.
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ern Iberia.

Decline
By the early thirteenth century Wagadu ceased to be a
state system in the political geography ofWest Africa.The War and Peace—
Soso kingdom, a former tributary located along the
southern frontier of the empire (late twelfth–early thir- Overview
teenth century) and then the Mali empire (mid-thirteenth–
mid-fifteenth century) that arose on the Upper Niger uestions of war and peace have dominated politics
River reduced Wagadu to a tribute-paying vassal state. Qand philosophy since the dawn of civilization; con-
Nevertheless, Wagadu’s core zone continued to flourish quest and resistance have shaped major eras of global
until the first half of the fifteenth century, after which it development. But while war and peace are from one per-
ceased to exist as a political entity. spective inseparable twins—two sides of the same coin—
the histories of war and peace have not been so sym-
Ray A. Kea
metrical. History has often been written about war;
“peace studies,” on the other hand, are a modern aca-
demic invention. (And note which term comes first in this
Further Reading
article’s heading.) This asymmetry points to a funda-
Berthier, S. (1997), Recherches archéologiques sur la capitale de l’empire
Ghana [Archaeological research at the capital of the Ghana empire]. mental question about war and peace: Which condition,
Oxford, UK: Hadrian Books. war or peace, is “normal” and which the aberration?