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known as a “bear-leader,” whose responsibility was to ed their travels. The interest in ancient culture attracted
instruct his charge and keep him away from unhealthful visitors to Greece, then part of the Turkish Ottoman Em-
pleasures. In addition, the travel party included servants pire. For example, the English artist James Stuart’s visit
brought from home, again as a means of control and of to Athens in mid-century resulted in the printing of his
obviating the need to engage staff locally, a practice seen book The Antiquities of Athens (1762), which greatly
as dangerous because of the risks of theft and possible affected Western architectural style and earned its author
invitations to evil company. the name of “Athenian” Stuart; the journey to Asia Minor
The actual travel was uncomfortable, expensive, and by architectural antiquaries and travellers Robert Wood
often perilous. Bad food, filthy inns, impassable roads, and James Dawkins from 1750 to 1753 produced the
brigands, disease, and political difficulties made journeys equally influential books Ruins of Palmyra and Ruins of
unpleasant. One needed to bribe officials—especially cus- Baalbek. A remarkable woman traveller, Lady Mary Wort-
toms officers at borders—convert currency at excessive ley Montagu (d. 1762), explored Turkey, having been
rates in every small country, hire often-dishonest guides brought there initially as wife of the British ambassador.
or translators, and transfer funds to pay expenses, usually Her observations of the practice of vaccination against
accompanied by outrageous fees. Furthermore, because smallpox helped introduce the procedure in Europe.
Grand Tours regularly lasted several years, only rich fam- The French Revolutionary War and the Napoleonic
ilies could tolerate the cost. Well-educated but poorer Wars caused a virtual cessation of the Grand Tour, but it
travellers did benefit, however; because they were the was revived and extended after 1815, especially to the
companions of the young aristocrats, their expenses Ottoman East. Famous travellers, such as the English poet
were paid, and occasionally some wages were provided. Lord Byron, journeyed to Greece, and several women
Travellers were given letters of introduction to cele- travellers, such as Lady Jane Digby (d. 1881), went far-
brated people to facilitate the travellers’ learning. In some ther into Ottoman territory. Digby settled eventually in
cases these people were expatriate fellow nationals, long Damascus, Syria, as the wife of a Bedouin chief. Lady
resident in foreign cities; in other cases they were noted Hester Stanhope (d. 1839), who visited Malta, Greece,
scholars, artists, or writers whose households operated as Egypt, and Syria, adopted Eastern dress and received for-
gathering places for local luminaries, or they were official eign travellers at her home.
national representatives, such as ambassadors or consuls, The tradition of the Grand Tour was largely over by
who could introduce the young men into society and pro- 1850. The advent of the railroad and cheap packaged
tect them from the consequences of their own folly or tours initiated by the English travel agent Thomas Cook
harsh foreign laws. Men such as Sir Horace Mann, Eng- madetheexperienceoftheGrandTouravailabletothemid-
lish consul in Florence, and English diplomat Joseph dle classes, reducing its currency among the aristocracy.
Smith in Venice gave hospitality to their travelling com-
Kenneth Bartlett
patriots, and often the friendships made during these
introductions lasted a lifetime and served as continuing See also Tourism
connections among the natural leaders of various nations,
proving useful to scholars, scientists, statesmen, and dip-
lomats alike. Further Reading
Chaney, E. (2001). The evolution of the Grand Tour:Anglo-Italian cultural
Extended Travels relations since the Renaissance. London: Frank Cass.
Hibbert, C. (1987). The Grand Tour. London: Thames Methuen.
During the eighteenth century people usually did not Nolan, B. (2001). Ladies of the Grand Tour: British women in pursuit of
travel much beyond the confines of western Europe; enlightenment and adventure in eighteenth century Europe. New York:
Harper Collins.
indeed, travel to Spain, Portugal, and Sicily was consid-
Redford, B. (1996). Venice and the Grand Tour. New Haven, CT: Yale
ered exotic. However, a number of grand tourists extend- University Press.