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66 Biobehavioral Resilience to Stress

stress (Mechanic, 1962), occupational stress (e.g., House, 1974), and social
environment stress (e.g., French & Kahn, 1962). For the purpose of under-
standing the relation between leadership and resilience, we fi nd especially
useful two models of stress that focus on the “fit” between person and environ-

ment. These are McGrath’s (1976) Four Processes model and Karasek’s (1979)
demand– control–support (D–C–S) model.

Four Processes Stress Model
McGrath (1976) conceptualizes stress as a four-stage cycle that involves
appraisal, decision-making, performance, and outcome. When confronted

by a stressful situation, the individual must first cognitively appraise (cor-
rectly or incorrectly) the situation as one that will lead to undesirable results

if left unchecked. Next, the individual must choose or decide upon a course
of action that is intended to mitigate the detrimental aspects of the situa-

tion. The individual then executes the selected course of action. Finally, the
individual must evaluate the extent to which his or her behavior and actions
are successful in changing the situation. Successful change depends both
upon the extent to which selected behavior can have a realistic effect on the

situation and upon the individual’s ability to perform the selected behavior
or action.
Like virtually all stress models, the Four Processes model employs
what is essentially a stimulus (S)–organism (O)–response (R) framework to

understand human response to stress. This approach presumes that individu-
als (Os) interpret and evaluate various stressors (Ss) as demands, which must
be met by action (Rs). In Figure 4.1, we present the Four Processes model in
the context of an S–O–R framework to illustrate various ways in which resil-
ience might moderate stressor–strain connections. As Figure 4.1 indicates,

Objective (CAP) Perceived (DMP) Response (PP) Actions, (OP) Altered
situation situation selection behaviors situation

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Resilience
Facing reality with determination
Imposing meaning on hardship
Willingness to improvise

Figure 4.1 Possible moderator influences of resilience within the four processes

stress model. CAP, cognitive appraisal process; DMP, decision-making process;
PP, performance process; OP, outcome process.

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