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adverse effects of stress (e.g., role clarity, self-efficacy, and job engagement)”

(Britt et al., 2004, 541).

Stressors in Military Environments

Before we address the role of leadership and resilience in military settings,

we must first consider what types of stressors are typically found in mil-
itary environments. For the purpose of organization and clarity, we will
separately address the stressors that are typical in routine (nondeployed)
and deployed settings. Although there is certainly some degree of overlap
between these two conditions of military service, each involves some unique
stressors.
In each case, we apply a classification system (see Campbell & Noble,

2005) to identify three different types of stressors: (1) incompatibility stress-
ors, (2) incapacity stressors, and (3) distraction stressors. Th is system is
based on the notion that, while all stressors may potentially interfere with

job performance, different types of stressors do so in different ways. Spe-

cifically, incompatibility stressors cause strain and threaten performance

because they create questions or conflicts regarding job-related tasks or roles.
Incapacity stressors directly constrict the individual’s capacity to perform
required tasks, for example, for lack of personal skills or absence of essential
resources. Finally, distraction stressors shift attention away from required

tasks and direct it instead toward physically or psychologically signifi cant
corollary matters and concerns (e.g., harsh climate, boredom, loneliness).
We hypothesize that the impact of leadership on resilience and perhaps even
the very nature of resilience itself may depend upon what type(s) of stressors
are confronted in a given situation.

Stressors in Routine, Nondeployed Environments

Work-related stressors in nondeployed military environments are similar
to those encountered in civilian work settings. Investigators have examined
various types of stressors related to job role (Dobreva-Martinova, Villeneuve,
Strickland & Matheson, 2002; Bliese & Castro, 2000; Barling & MacIntyre,
1993; Day & Livingstone, 2001), work relationships (Planz & Sonnek, 2002;

Jex & Thomas, 2003; Carbone & Cigrang, 2001), time and workload (Bliese
& Halverson, 1996; Gold & Friedman, 2000), and change and transition

(Planz & Sonnek, 2002). Researchers have also studied the effects of physical
work demands (e.g., Bowles, Holger & Picano, 2000), sleep deprivation (e.g.,
Britt, Stetz & Bliese, 2004), and job-related environmental stressors such as
extreme climates, toxic agents, and normal but inherently hazardous work
conditions (e.g., handling explosives; cf. Norwood, 1997).

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