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Resilience through Leadership 73

Table 4.2 Stressors Unique to Deployed Military Environments
Stressors Examples
Mission Stressors
Incompatibility Overlapping areas of responsibility
Incapacity Responsibility without clear authority
Distraction Evolving objectives and contradictory goals
Cultural Stressors
Incompatibility Different values and unfamiliar ways

Incapacity Uncertainty about how to act/react
Distraction Relating to unfamiliar conditions
Leadership Climate Stressors
Incompatibility Contradictory expectations
Incapacity Unmet physical/environmental needs
Distraction Information oversights/communication failures
Combat Stressors
Incompatibility Killing and injuring others

Incapacity Active fighting, dealing with loss of comrades
Distraction Witnessing civilian suff ering

and cultural differences (see Table 4.2). Because these unique stressors are

inherently complex and because the consequences of resulting performance

breakdown are potentially severe, associated strain effects might be attribut-
able to all of the three stressor categories identified earlier (incompatibility

demands, incapacity, and distraction).
Combat-related stressors occur most predictably in the context of war,
but also in other situations and operations where survival is uncertain
(Dekel, Solomon, Ginzburg & Neria, 2003). Obvious stressors are combat-
related injuries and the threat of injury or death. Deployed personnel may
also witness injury, suffering, and death of others (e.g., combatants, civilians,

children) or experience the loss of comrades (Rosebush, 1998; Weerts et al.,
2002). They might be forced to observe the gruesome results of atrocities

(Hotopf et al., 2003) or retrieval and disposal of human remains (MacDonald
et al., 1998). All of these stressors are unique to deployment and are poten-
tially severe in their eff ects.
Deployment can also introduce cognitive stressors related to the nature
of the undertaking itself. Peacekeeping operations are especially prone to
confusion and ambiguity regarding the mission goals and long-term value
(Ballone et al., 2000). Confusion and uncertainty may be exacerbated by
poor understanding of history and social context and by the fact that mission

objectives often change or evolve in response to shifting political realities.
Related stressors, common among multinational units, may involve lack of
clarity with respect to organizational relationships and overlapping areas of
authority and responsibility (Shigemura & Nomura, 2002).

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