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Raw Materials to Produce Low-Cost Biodiesel 125

Figure 4.14 Cynara cardunculus.

The reaction can also be accomplished by using an ethanol–oil molar
ratio of 12:1 and 1% sodium hydroxide, at 75 C [125]. C. cardunculus
methyl esters also provide a significant reduction in particulate emis-
sions, mainly due to reduced soot and sulfate formation [126].

4.3.2 Ethiopian mustard oil
Crop description. Brassica carinata, commonly known as Ethiopian
mustard, is an adequate oil-bearing crop that is well adapted to mar-
ginal regions (see Fig. 4.15). This crop, which is originally from Ethiopia,
is drought-resistant and grown in arid regions [127, 128]. Ethiopian
mustard presents up to 6% saturated hydrocarbon chains. It is native
to the Ethiopian highlands, is widely used as food by the Ethiopians, and
pre-sents better agronomic performances in areas such as Spain,
California, and Italy. This makes B. carinata a promising oil feedstock
for cultivation in coastal Mediterranean areas, which could offer the pos-
sibility of exploiting the Mediterranean marginal areas for energetic pur-
poses [129]. Its fatty acid composition includes palmitic acid (3.6%),
stearic acid (1.3%), oleic acid (14.8%), linoleic acid (12.2%), gadoleic acid
(10.3%), and erucic acid (45.4%) [123].

Main uses. It is widely used as food in Ethiopia. Oil from wild species
is high in erucic acid, which is toxic, although some cultivars contain
little erucic acid and can be used as food. The seed can also be crushed
and used as a condiment [127]. There is a genetic relationship among