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16.2.5 Flowers, Leaves, and Birds: Some Specialized Problems . . . 511
16.3 Image Classification in Practice . . . . . ... .. ... .. .. ... . 512
16.3.1 Codes for Image Features .. .. ... .. ... .. .. ... . 513
16.3.2 Image Classification Datasets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
16.3.3 Dataset Bias . . . . . .. .. .. ... .. ... .. .. ... . 515
16.3.4 Crowdsourcing Dataset Collection . . . . . .. .. .. ... . 515
16.4 Notes . . . . . . .. .. .. ... .. .. ... .. ... .. .. ... . 517

17 Detecting Objects in Images 519
17.1 The Sliding Window Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
17.1.1 Face Detection . .. ... .. .. ... .. ... .. .. ... . 520
17.1.2 Detecting Humans . ... .. .. ... .. ... .. .. ... . 525
17.1.3 Detecting Boundaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
17.2 Detecting Deformable Objects . . . . . . . .. .. ... .. .. ... . 530
17.3 The State of the Art of Object Detection . . . . ... .. .. ... . 535
17.3.1 Datasets and Resources . . . . . ... .. ... .. .. ... . 538
17.4 Notes . . . . . . .. .. .. ... .. .. ... .. ... .. .. ... . 539

18 Topics in Object Recognition 540
18.1 What Should Object Recognition Do? . ... .. ... .. .. ... . 540
18.1.1 What Should an Object Recognition System Do? . . . . . . . 540
18.1.2 Current Strategies for Object Recognition . . . . . . . . . . . 542
18.1.3 What Is Categorization? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
18.1.4 Selection: What Should Be Described? .. ... .. .. ... . 544
18.2 Feature Questions . .. .. ... .. .. ... .. ... .. .. ... . 544
18.2.1 Improving Current Image Features .. .. ... .. .. ... . 544
18.2.2 Other Kinds of Image Feature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
18.3 Geometric Questions . . . . ... .. .. ... .. ... .. .. ... . 547
18.4 Semantic Questions . . . . . ... .. .. ... .. ... .. .. ... . 549
18.4.1 Attributes and the Unfamiliar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550
18.4.2 Parts, Poselets and Consistency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
18.4.3 Chunks of Meaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554

VI APPLICATIONS AND TOPICS 557

19 Image-Based Modeling and Rendering 559
19.1 Visual Hulls . . ... .. .. ... .. .. ... .. ... .. .. ... . 559
19.1.1 Main Elements of the Visual Hull Model . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
19.1.2 Tracing Intersection Curves . .. ... .. ... .. .. ... . 563
19.1.3 Clipping Intersection Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566