Page 175 - Contemporary Political Sociology Globalization Politics and Power

Citizenship 161

the contrary, it has continued to be favored by policy - makers in some
European countries, and it is becoming increasingly popular again every-
where as multiculturalism comes into question. Nevertheless, it now coex-
ists alongside demands for group rights in the name of equal respect for
all citizens in multicultural societies.

Immigration, assimilation, and “ new racism ”
“ Racial ” or ethnic minority groups take many different forms in relation
to the majority society of which they form a part. Some societies defi ne
themselves as multicultural. In India, for example, the criminal law is
uniform, recognizing only individuals, while each religious community is
governed by its own civil laws. The Indian citizen has, then, a kind of
dual identity as a member of a religious community and as an individual
(Parekh, 1993 ). In the West, however, the mono - cultural nation - state is
the dominant model. In such societies, citizens are supposed to enjoy
identical rights as members of a common national culture. Marshall cer-
tainly saw citizenship rights in this way: on one hand, they enable citizens
to participate in the common standards of civilization; on the other, they
contribute to social solidarity, unifying the nation in a shared sense of
community (Marshall, 1992 ). As Will Kymlicka ( 1995 : 236) points out,
Marshall ’ s understanding of citizenship rights is somewhat paradoxical:
he sees them not only as fostering a common culture, but also as presup-
posing it. In fact, many European countries have always contained large
cultural minorities: Bretons in France, Catalans in Spain, and so on. Some
Western European countries, such as Britain, Belgium, and Switzerland,
may well be described as multinational, where “ nation ” means “ a histori-
cal community, more or less institutionally complete, occupying a given
territory or homeland, sharing a distinct language and culture ” (Kymlicka,
1995 : 11). New World nations, such as Australia, Canada, and the United
States, are undoubtedly multicultural since they are made up of immi-
grants from different cultural and linguistic backgrounds, and, since they
all contain native First Nations, they are multinational, too. Despite the
fact that it has virtually never been realized, however, the dominant model
of a culturally homogeneous nation has nevertheless posed problems for
the minorities who live and work in these countries.
The very issue of whether or not immigrants are entitled to citizenship
is linked to the homogenizing nation - state. There are two ideal - typical
ways of attributing citizenship rights at birth. Some states traditionally
grant citizenship to all those born within the state ’ s territory ( jus soli ).
Others grant it according to the citizenship of the baby ’ s parents ( jus