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Communications Strategy 97

1. Combination of planned and emergent processes of strategy formation. First of all, it
is recognized that, within practice, strategy formation often involves a combination
of a logical rational process in which visions and objectives are articulated and syste-
matically worked out into programmes and actions, as well as a more emergent
processes in which behaviours and actions simply arise (emerge) yet fall within the
strategic scope of the organization. Johnson has pointed out that within strategy
theorizing there are accordingly two main thrusts in thinking about the process of
strategy formation that reflect this combination. On the one hand, Johnson suggests,
strategy formation can be seen to involve logical, rational processes conducted
through either a planning mode or an adaptive, logical incremental mode whereby
a direction and strategic objectives for the organization are articulated. On the other
hand, strategy formation can involve what Johnson termed an ‘organizational action’
approach in which strategy is confined to manifest behavioural actions and consi-
dered as ‘the product of the political, programmatic, cognitive or symbolic aspects of
management within the organization’. 4
The same combination of planned and emergent processes of strategy formation
can also be observed at the level of communications strategy. In practice, communi-
cations strategy typically consists of pre-structured and annually planned for pro-
grammes, campaigns and actions, as well as more ad-hoc, reactive responses that
emerge in response to issues (crises!) and stakeholder concerns in the environment.
In the following quote from an interview with the vice president of corporate affairs
at Kingfisher, a large retail group in the UK, this is aptly illustrated:

The area [of corporate communications] that we work in is not like finance, and, of course,
I have this discussion all the time with [managers in] finance, because it means that for
instance managing our budget is much more difficult as we are constantly responding to
both the external and internal environment … Your environment is changing all the time,
which means that your tactical approach is probably adjusting all the time. So, what is a
priority one day is no longer a priority the next day. It requires continuous flexibility. 5

2. Strategy involves a general direction, and not simply plans or tactics. The term strat-
egy is itself derived from the Greek ‘strategos’ meaning a general set of manoeuvres
carried out to overcome an enemy.What is notable here is the emphasis on general,
not specific, sets of manouvres. Specific sets of manouvres are seen as within the remit
of those concerned with translating the strategy into operations or tactics. In other
words, strategy embodies more than plans and tactics, which often have a more
immediate and short-term focus, and rather concerns the organization’s direction
and positioning in relation to its environment for a longer period of time.

3. Strategy is about the organization and its environment. Related to the previous
point, the strategy literature is permeated with the concepts of ‘mission’ and ‘envi-
ronment’.Together, they suggest that organizations must make long-term, strategic
choices that are feasible in their environments.According to Steiner and his colleagues
strategic management can be distinguished from operational management (or
input–output management, see also Chapters 1 and 3) by ‘the growing significance
of environmental impacts on organizations and the need for top managers to react
6
appropriately to them’. Managers who manage strategically do so by balancing the