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Genealogy of Cultural Studies 95

120. Williams, The Year 2000, 130.
121. Williams, Television: Technology and Cultural Form, 19.
122. For an enthusiastic recounting of the doctrine of technological determinism,
see Langdon Winner, Autonomous Technology: Technics-out-of-Control as a Theme
in Political Thought (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1977).
123. Williams, Television: Technology and Cultural Form, 130.
124. Williams, Television: Technology and Cultural Form, 129.
125. Williams, “Means of Communication as Means of Production,” 55
126. Harold Innis, “Minerva’s Owl,” in The Bias of Communication (1951; reprint,
with an Introduction by Marshall McLuhan, Toronto: University of Toronto Press,
1971), 6.
127. Innis’ views on elite vs. popular rule are in question. Prior to World War II,
Innis bristled at proposals for government planning. Regarding education, he was not
merely conservative, but elitist, claiming that in any community there is only “a lim-
ited number capable of sustained mental effort.” Although admitting that brilliant
minds are to be found “in all regions and in all strata,” nonetheless he also opined that
to thrive society must persistently seek out, encourage, and train the “best brains.”
Universality in higher education, conversely, according to Innis, meant pandering to
the lowest common denominator, in which case “ideas must be ground down to a con-
venient size to meet the demands of large numbers.” See Donald Creighton, Harold
Adams Innis: Portrait of a Scholar, 82; Harold A. Innis, “Adult Education and Uni-
versities,” in Staples, Markets, and Cultural Change, 474, 472; and Innis, “Govern-
ment Ownership and the Canadian Scene” (1933), in Essays in Canadian Economic
History, ed. Mary Q. Innis (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1956), 78–84. By
the late 1940s or early 1950s, though, Innis had truly become a “Red Tory,” even vis-
iting the Soviet Union in pursuit of enlightenment.
128. Williams, The Year 2000, 144.
129. Richard Hoggart, “Adult Education: The Legacy and the Future,” lecture in
celebration of the fiftieth anniversary of the University of Glasgow’s Department of
Adult and Continuing Education, 18 October 2001, www.gla.ac.uk/adulteducation/
latestnews/RichardHoggart.html (accessed June 9, 2008).
130. E. P. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class, 13.
131. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class, 9–10, 11.
132. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class, 213; emphasis added.
133. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class, 261.
134. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class, 213.
135. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class, 24.
136. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class, 90.
137. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class, 87.
138. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class, 91.
139. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class, 34–8, 103.
140. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class, 61.
141. Thompson, The Making of the English Working Class, 95.
142. Thomas Paine, Rights of Man, as quoted in Thompson, The Making of the
English Working Class, 100.