Page 143 - Cultural Theory and Popular Culture an Introduction

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Jacques Derrida 127

signifier to signifier . . . which gives the signified meaning no respite . . . so that it
always signifies again’ (1978a: 25). It is only when located in a discourse and read in a
context that there is a temporary halt to the endless play of signifier to signifier. For
example, if we read or hear the words ‘nothing was delivered’, they would mean some-
thing quite different depending on whether they were the opening words of a novel, a
line from a poem, an excuse, a jotting in a shopkeeper’s notebook, a line from a song,
an example from a phrase book, part of a monologue in a play, part of a speech in a
film, an illustration in an explanation of différance.But even context cannot fully con-
trol meaning: the phrase ‘nothing was delivered’ will carry with it the ‘trace’ of mean-
ings from other contexts. If I know the line is from a song, this will resonate across the
words as I read them in a shopkeeper’s notebook.
For Derrida, the binary opposition, so important to structuralism, is never a simple
structural relation; it is always a relation of power, in which one term is in a position
of dominance with regard to the other. Moreover, the dominance of one over the other
(a matter of, say, priority or privilege) is not something which arises ‘naturally’ out of
the relationship, but something which is produced in the way the relationship is con-
structed. Black and white, it could be argued, exist in a binary opposition, one always
existing as the absent other when one of the terms is defined. But it is not difficult to
see how in many powerful discourses, white is the positive term, holding priority and
privilege over black. Even leaving aside racism, there is a long history of black connot-
ing negatively and white connoting positively. The DES advertisement I discussed ear-
lier contains what Derrida (1978b) would call a ‘violent hierarchy’ (41) in its couplet:
‘good’ girl, who is interested in electromagnetism, genetics and Charles Dickens; and
‘bad’ girl, who prefers music, clothes and boys. Derrida (1976) refers to the ‘strange
economy of the supplement’ (154) to point to the unstable interplay between such
binary oppositions. In his analyses of Jean Jacques Rousseau’s ‘confessional’ and
linguistic writings, Derrida deconstructs the binary opposition between speech and
writing. Rousseau considers speech as the natural way to express thought; writing, he
regards as a ‘dangerous supplement’. However, when presence is no longer guaranteed
by speech, writing becomes a necessary means to protect presence. But for Rousseau
writing can only be a ‘supplement to speech’: ‘it is not natural. It diverts the immediate
presence of thought. . . . [It is] a sort of artificial and artful ruse to make speech present
when it is actually absent. It is a violence done to the natural destiny of the language’
(144). To supplement means both to add and to substitute. Writing is therefore both
an addition to speech and a substitute for speech. But speech itself is a supplement. It
does not exist outside culture. Speech cannot therefore play Edenic nature to writing’s
fallen culture,both always already belong to ‘the order of the supplement’ (149).
For, as Derrida insists, ‘the indefinite process of supplementarity has always already
infiltrated presence, always already inscribed there the space of repetition and the
splitting of the self [from pure self-presence]’ (163). Nature may have preceded culture,
but our sense of nature as pure presence is a product of culture. Writing is not the fall
of language, it is inscribed in its origins. Rousseau, in a sense, already knows this:
according to Derrida, he ‘declares what he wishes to say’, but he also ‘describes that which