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Problem Solving and Decision Making in Groups 239
and to one another, if they do not already know each other. In the evaluation phase,
they decide what they collectively think about the problem or decision. Finally,
during the control phase, the group has reached enough socioemotional maturity for
members to concentrate on completing their task. For each new problem they con-
front, groups will tend to cycle through all three of these stages, returning to an ori-
entation stage for a new problem once a decision has been reached about a previous
problem.
Fisher’s Model of Group Phases
Later, Fisher observed that experienced decision- making groups pass through four
phases as they work toward deciding among a group of alternatives. These phases
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are orientation, conflict, decision emergence, and reinforcement. They can be
identified by the kinds of interactions that occur in each.
Orientation During the orientation phase, members develop a shared understand-
ing of their task, the facts about available options, and how to interpret them. Signs
of disagreement are minimal; ambiguous and favorable remarks are common. This
makes sense because, when group members are uncertain about the facts or con-
cerned about how others will perceive them, they will not make strong statements
of disagreement that might offend another member. In this early stage, a member
is more likely to say, “Well, that idea sounds like it might work, but maybe we
should take time to think about it some more,” than to say, “That’s not going to
work at all— we’re going to have to try a lot harder if we are to come up with a
decent solution.” The first remark is ambiguous and tentative; the second is clear
and definite.
Conflict During the conflict phase, members offer initiatives, take stands, disagree,
offer compromises, argue for and against proposals, and generally discuss ideas in a
more open manner than during orientation. Ambiguous remarks fall to a low level in
this phase, but disagreeing and agreeing remarks are common. For instance, Selena
says, “I think we should get more information about the impact this might have before
we proceed much further.” Andrew replies, “Naw, we have all the information we
need right now to decide.” Then Tina supports Selena: “I agree with Selena. We need
to know a lot more or we might really mess things up.” Members argue for and against
proposals, with most people taking sides. Wishy- washy behavior disappears as opin-
ions are expressed clearly and forcefully.
Decision Emergence For a group to achieve its goal, it must move, somehow, from a
position where each member argues a particular point of view to a position where
members are willing to be influenced by one another. This movement is signaled by
the reappearance of ambiguity in the group. Whereas the earlier ambiguity served as
a way of managing primary tension, now it helps resolve secondary tension by allow-
ing the members to back off from staunchly held positions and save face at the same
time. It would be hard on a member’s self- image to switch suddenly from “I think we
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