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4.1 Introduction to Systems 67
accompanied by its surrounding can generate a larger/broader system, and
those parts contained in the original system can be regarded as the subsystem
of the new one.

Elements of a System
A system can be described in terms of five basic elements (Fig. 4.1): (1) the various
components comprising a system (A, B, C, D in Fig. 4.1); (2) interactions among
the components of a system; (3) the environment in which the system exists;
(4) inputs from the environment to the system; (5) outputs from the system to the
environment (Mangal & Mangal, 2009).
In general system theory, a system is any collection of interrelated parts that
together constitute a larger whole. These component parts or elements of the system
are intimately linked with one another, either directly or indirectly, and any change
in one or more elements may affect the overall performance of the system, either
beneficially or adversely.
Examples of a System
Solar system and the human body system are the typical examples of a system.
(1) The solar system is made up of the sun and eight planets (Mercury, Venus,
Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune) along with smaller planetary
objects; the solar system includes the mutual interactions among these elements
(e.g., gravitational influence), their orbits, as well as influences from the milky way
galaxy which is the environment in which the solar system exists.
(2) The human body is comprised of several systems, including the nervous
system, the skeletal system, the endocrine system, the exocrine system, the blood
circulatory system, the respiratory system, the digestive system, the urinary system,
and the reproductive system. These systems coordinate with each other to carry out
their different physiological functions. The human body exists in an environment

A

Intetactions Output from
Input to B between C system into
system components or another
Sub-systems system

D

Fig. 4.1 A typical system. Adapted from the Robert Gordon University curriculum;
see http://www2.rgu.ac.uk/celt/pgcerttlt/systems/sys3.htm