Page 60 - Effective group discussion theory and practice by Adams, Katherine H. Brilhart, John K. Galanes, Gloria J

Human Communication Processes in the Small Group Context 43

arm positions, self-touching behavior, and leg positions indicating congruity. Several
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studies found that group members are more likely to imitate the movements and gestures
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of members with high status and power than those with low status. We can infer who
has power and status in a group by observing which members are mimicked by others.
In discussion groups, body movements often regulate the flow of discussion. For
example, speakers often signal that they are finished speaking by relaxing and stop-
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ping hand gestures. Scheflen reported that a speaker who is concluding a point
makes a noticeable postural shift. A listener can bid for the floor by leaning forward,
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waving a hand, and simultaneously opening the mouth.
Vocal Cues Vocal cues, or paralanguage, are any characteristics of voice and utterance Paralanguage
other than the words themselves. Included are variables such as pitch, rate, fluency, pro- Nonverbal
nunciation variations, force, tonal quality, and pauses. Extensive research since the 1930s characteristics of
indicates that listeners attribute certain characteristics to speakers based on these vocal voice and utterance,
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cues, including such things as attitudes, interests, personality traits, adjustment, ethnic such as pitch, rate,
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group, education, and anxiety level and other emotional states. Tone of voice is an excel- tone of voice, fluency,
lent indicator of a person’s self-concept and mood. For instance, frightened people tend pauses, and
to speak in tense, metallic tones; anxious people have nonfluencies such as interjections, variations in dialect.
repetitions, hesitations, sentence correction, and even stuttering in their speech.
How we react to statements such as “I agree” or “Okay” depends much more on
the pitch patterns and tone of voice than on the words themselves. For example, sar-
casm and irony are indicated primarily by a tone of voice that suggests the words
should be taken opposite to what they seem to mean. Children generally do not under-
stand sarcasm, and even one-third of high school seniors take sarcastic statements
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literally. Sarcasm in a group is easily misunderstood.
In both movement and voice, animation tends to increase status within the group.
People who speak quietly in a low key have little persuasive impact. They seem to lack
much personal involvement with what they say. However, members whose vocal qual-
ities change too extensively may be seen as irrational, not to be trusted as leaders or
credible sources. Taylor found, however, that excessive vocal stress was judged more
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credible than a monotonous vocal pattern. You are advised to vary your vocal tone
and use vocal cues to emphasize the verbal content of your remarks.
Cultural differences have been observed in the use of the backchannel, which refers
to vocalizations such as mm-hmm, uh-huh, and yeah-yeah-yeah that are uttered while
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another is speaking to indicate interest and active listening. Yet backchannel behavior, Backchannel
too, is deeply rooted in cultural norms. Those from western European backgrounds Nonverbal
tend to use the backchannel less than African Americans, Hispanics, or people from vocalizations such as
southern European background. If group members do not share the same backchannel mm-hmm and uh-huh
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norms, then negative perceptions can arise among them. Those from the same culture that are uttered while
who do use backchannels similarly are better able to recall the information, but when another is speaking,
backchannel norms clash, those negative perceptions get in the way of recalling the partly determined by
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information later on. These differences may then impact how smoothly members one’s culture, can
agree on the issues. If, for example, you believe your group peers agree with your ideas indicate interest and
based on how you read their “uh-huhs,” only to discover later that they were only trying active listening.
to show they were listening to you, you will probably not be very happy.

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