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Information Processing: Historical Perspectives

The use of integrated circuits improved computer The Internet has been enhanced by the World Wide
development, which resulted in third-generation comput- Web (WWW), which enables computer users to search,
ers. Integrated circuits, developed in 1958, used minia- view, and disseminate information on a plethora of sub-
ture-size transistors that were mounted on small chips of jects from Web sites. The WWW was developed in 1990
silicon about a quarter of an inch long on each side. These by Tim Berners-Lee (1955– ). The Internet, coupled with
microchips allowed scientists to develop even smaller, the WWW, has changed profoundly the way industrial-
faster, and reliable computers. IBM used microchips to ized nations communicate, disseminate, and process
develop the 360 series of computers. Instead of punched information.
cards, users interacted with their computers using key-
boards, monitors, and operating systems. FIFTH-GENERATION COMPUTERS
During the third-generation era, high-level program- Fifth-generation computing devices are currently under
ming languages were introduced. While third-generation development. The focus of this generation involves mak-
computers were performing more complex data manipu- ing computers behave like humans. This phenomenon
lation, communicating with the computers also became was called artificial intelligence by John McCarthy
more complicated. Programming languages such as (1927– ) at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in
COBOL and FORTRAN were developed in the 1950s to 1957. The area of artificial intelligence includes gaming,
make programming the computer easier. These high-level expert systems, natural languages, neural networks, and
languages used compilers or interpreters to convert the robotics. Gaming involves creating games that allow users
English-like code into machine language. to play against the computer. Expert systems are computer
applications that perform the tasks of a human expert,
such as diagnosing an illness. Natural languages allow
FOURTH-GENERATION
computers to understand natural human languages such
COMPUTERS
as English or Chinese. Neural networks attempt to func-
Fourth-generation computers were led by the develop- tion like the brain of a human or animal. Robotics
ment of the microprocessor. Called a semiconductor, this
includes creating computers that can use human senses
processor was produced in 1971 by a company called
such as seeing and hearing.
Intel. The semiconductor was a large-scale integrated cir-
cuit that contained thousands of transistors on a single Although scientists are having a great deal of diffi-
chip. The development of this chip led to the invention of culty in making computers behave and think like humans,
there have been some advances in this field. In the area of
the first personal computer. With this invention, the use
gaming, programmers have developed computer games
of computers spread from large businesses and the mili- that can “outthink” humans. In the area of natural lan-
tary to small businesses and homes.
guages, voice recognition software has been developed to
IBM introduced its first home computer in 1981 and
convert spoken words to written words. It allows users to
Apple developed the Macintosh home computer in 1984.
speak to the computer and in return the computer dictates
The Intel 4004 chip fit all the components of a computer what the user says into the form of words of the screen.
into one tiny chip. This innovation eventually led to the Information processing or data processing has
development of handheld devices. Handheld devices are
become synonymous with computers. The development
portable computers that have many of the capabilities of a
of the computer, the Internet and the WWW has vastly
desktop computer. One popular handheld device is the improved the way that information can be processed.
personal digital assistant that allows a user to schedule and These tools have provided society with more information
organize information.
processing capability than ever before. As the ever-chang-
ing world continues to evolve, one can be certain that
THE INTERNET AND WORLD WIDE more information-processing innovations are soon to fol-
WEB low.
The powerful capability of microprocessors allowed small
SEE ALSO Hardware; Information Processing; Office Tech-
computers to link together to form networks or the Inter- nology
net. The Internet, conceptualized in the late 1960s by
researchers from the Advanced Research Projects Agency
of the U.S. Department of Defense, is a network of com- BIBLIOGRAPHY
The five generations of computers. (n.d.). Retrieved November
puter networks that enable communication among com-
17, 2005, from
puter users. The Internet facilitated the use of electronic http://www.webopedia.com/DidYouKnow/Hardware_
mail, which is a commonly used form of communication. Software/2002/FiveGenerations.asp

384 ENCYCLOPEDIA OF BUSINESS AND FINANCE, SECOND EDITION