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Motivation

MOTIVATION-HYGIENE THEORY responsibility. They want to be directed and are most
Frederick Herzberg (1923–2000), a professor of psychol- interested in job security.
ogy at Case Western Reserve University, studied the atti-
tudes of workers toward their jobs. Herzberg proposed Theory Y. The assumptions of Theory Y are that work is
that an individual will be moved to action based on the very natural to people and that most people are self-
desire to avoid deprivation. This motivation, however, directed to achieve objectives to which they are commit-
does not provide positive satisfaction because it does not ted. People are ambitious and creative. They desire
provide a sense of growth. Herzberg’s research found that responsibility and derive a sense of satisfaction from the
positive job attitudes were associated with a feeling of psy- work itself.
chological growth. He thought that people work for two These assumptions were, at one time, applied to
reasons: for financial reasons to avoid physical depriva- management styles, with autocratic managers labeled as
tion, and for achievement because of the happiness and adhering to Theory X and democratic managers to The-
meaning it provides. Herzberg also identified the concept ory Y. Unfortunately, this fostered a tendency to see peo-
of job enrichment, whereby the responsibilities of a job ple as members of a group rather than as individuals. The
are changed to provide greater growth and challenge. His important contribution of McGregor’s theory was to rec-
motivation-hygiene theory includes two types of factors, ognize these two perspectives and to recognize that people
motivation and hygiene. can achieve personal objectives through helping organiza-
tions achieve their objectives. Their work can be a motiva-
Motivation. Motivation is based on the positive satisfac- tor.
tion that psychological growth provides. The presence of
factors such as responsibility, achievement, recognition,
ACQUIRED-NEEDS THEORY
and possibility for growth or advancement will motivate
In his studies on personality and learned needs, David
and satisfy people. These factors directly influence how
McClelland (1917–1998) developed the acquired-needs
people feel about their work. The absence of these factors
will not necessarily demotivate or cause dissatisfaction. theory because he felt that different needs are acquired
throughout an individual’s lifetime. He proposed three
needs:
Hygiene. Hygiene is based on an individual’s desire to
avoid deprivation and the resulting physical and emo- 1. Need for achievement—The desire to accomplish
tional discomfort. Hygiene factors include willingness to something difficult, attain a high standard of suc-
supervise; positive working conditions; interpersonal rela- cess, master complex tasks, and surpass others
tions with peers, subordinates, and superiors; status; job
2. Need for affiliation—The desire to form close per-
security; and salary. These factors do not motivate, nor sonal relationships, avoid conflict, and establish
will their presence cause job satisfaction. Their absence,
warm friendships
however, will cause dissatisfaction.
3. Need for power—The desire to influence or control
Although salary is considered a hygiene factor, it plays
an indirect part in motivation as a measure of growth and others, be responsible for others, and have authority
advancement or as a symbol of recognition of achieve- over others
ment.
McClelland found through his research that early life
experiences determine whether people acquire these
THEORY X AND THEORY Y needs. The need to achieve as an adult is influenced by the
Douglas McGregor (1906–1964), a professor at the Mass- reinforcement of behavior received as a child when a child
achusetts Institute of Technology and a social psycholo- is encouraged to do things independently. If a child is
gist, was greatly influenced by the work of Maslow. reinforced for warm, human relationships, then the need
McGregor recognized that people have needs and that for affiliation as an adult develops. If a child gains satisfac-
those needs are satisfied at work. He described two sets of tion from controlling others, then the need for power will
assumptions about people that he labeled Theory X and be evident as an adult.
Theory Y. McClelland noted that people with a high need for
achievement are persistent in striving to reach goals, work
Theory X. The assumptions of Theory X are that most harder than people with other needs, and are medium risk
people will avoid work because they do not like it and takers. He also found these characteristics to be common
must be threatened or persuaded to put forth adequate among college graduates who selected entrepreneurial
effort. People have little ambition and do not want occupations.

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF BUSINESS AND FINANCE, SECOND EDITION 525