Page 289 - Envoys and Political Communication in the Late Antique West 411 - 533

Negotium agendum

Justinian’s wars and after
The wars undertaken in North Africa, Italy, and Spain at Justinian’s com-
mand began with a diplomatic d´ emarche of the highest order. The use
of lengthy speeches as part of Procopius’ classicising historiographical
style highlights the role of open communication in military tactics and
strategy. 195 Tactfully critical of Justinian’s decision to commence hostili-
ties against the Vandals in the face of good counsel, Procopius portrays
Justinian actively seeking causae belli against first the Vandals, then the
Ostrogoths. Justinian uses his envoys to Carthage and Ravenna in or-
der to negotiate in secret while spreading disinformation in public. 196
Both the imperial and the Ostrogothic courts sought strategic advantage
through opening negotiations for military support with neighbouring
powers, particularly the Franks in Gaul but also the Lombards in cen-
tral Europe and Persia. 197 Several times, the Ostrogothic and imperial
courts negotiated directly to end the conflict. Agreement was reached in
540 to end hostilities by partitioning Italy along the Po, but Belisarius
overthrew this deal (to preclude charges of disloyalty on Belisarius’ part,
Procopius is careful to note that Belisarius’ actions in this affair are at
all times conducted in full view of the imperial envoys sent to ratify
the peace treaty). 198 On the battlefield itself, generals dispatched fre-
quent embassies to their counterparts and to the cities in dispute, to
make economical use of their force; the brutal taking of Naples at the
beginning of the war informed subsequent negotiations between gener-
als and urban populations. 199 Through all these exchanges, the Gothic
leadership, as much as the Roman generals and court, made use of
the skills of trained orators and observed the protocols of embassies. 200

195 Averil Cameron, Procopius and the Sixth Century (London, 1985), 148–50, 212.
196 Critical: Procopius, Wars iii, 10.1–21; Roger Scott, ‘The Classical Tradition in Byzantine His-
toriography’, in Margaret Mullett and Roger Scott (eds.), Byzantium and the Classical Tradition
(Birmingham, 1981), 73–4. Causae belli: iii, 9.10–26; v, 2.23–4.31. Secret negotiations and dis-
information: above, nn. 147–8.
197
Imperial approaches to Franks: Procopius, Wars iv, 4.8–10; vi, 28.7–23; viii, 20.10, 24.11–30.
Gothic approaches to Franks: v, 13.26–9; vi, 28.7–23; vii, 37.1; viii, 34.17; Agathias, Hist. i, 1.7,
3.1, 5.1–6.1; to Lombards: Procopius, Wars vi, 22.11; to Persians: ii, 2.1–2; vi, 22.17–20.
198
Justinian and Gothic kings negotiate for peace settlement: Procopius, Wars vi, 6.33, 7.13–15,
22.22; vi, 28.7–29.30 (Belisarius’ intervention); vii, 21.18–25; vii, 37.6–7; viii, 24.4–5.
199
Armistices and other communications between generals: e.g. Procopius, Wars v, 20.8–21.1; vi,
7.21–4; vii, 22.8–17, 37.11. Cities: see below, nn. 223–35.
200
Oratory: mostobviously atProcopius, Wars vii, 21.18 (Totila sends to Justinian the rhetor
Theodorus with the deacon Pelagius, who was a former papal apocrisiarius to Justinian and
three times an envoy of the city of Rome to Totila himself; vii, 16.4–32; 20.23–5). Protocol:
e.g. vi, 29.1–5 (Justinian observes rank in sending senators to negotiate peace with Vitigis); vii,
16.4–32 (Totila and the deacon Pelagius discuss correct ways of honouring envoys).
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