Page 100 - Handbooks of Applied Linguistics Communication Competence Language and Communication Problems Practical Solutions

78 David Matsumoto, Seung Hee Yoo and Jeffrey A. LeRoux

On the other hand we define adjustment as the subjective experiences that
are associated with and result from attempts at adaptation, and that also moti-
vate further adaptation. Previous researchers have incorporated a wide range of
outcome measures as adjustment, including self-awareness and self-esteem
(Kamal and Maruyama 1990), mood states (Stone Feinstein and Ward 1990),
and health status (Babiker, Cox and Miller 1980; all cited in Ward 2001). Some
have developed synthesizing strategies to integrate specific approaches in order
to highlight a smaller number of features. For example, Brislin (1993) identified
three factors of adjustment, including (1) having successful relationships with
people from other cultures; (2) feeling that interactions are warm, cordial, re-
spectful, and cooperative; and (3) accomplishing tasks in an effective and effi-
cient manner. Gudykunst, Hammer and Wiseman (1977) included the ability to
manage psychological stress effectively. Black and Stephens (1989) identified
general adjustment involving daily activities, interaction adjustment involving
interpersonal relations, and work adjustment related to work and tasks.
Adapting to a new culture can have both positive and negative adjustment
outcomes. The positive consequences include gains in language competence;
self-esteem, awareness, and health (Babiker, Cox and Miller 1980; Kamal and
Maruyama 1990); self-confidence, positive mood, interpersonal relationships,
and stress reduction (Matsumoto et al. 2001). Clearly when intercultural experi-
ences go well, individuals report evolving in many qualitative, positive ways
so that they are different, and better, individuals. These include the development
of multicultural identities and multiple perspectives with which to engage the
world.
Negative adjustment outcomes include psychological and psychosomatic
concerns (Shin and Abell 1999); early return to one’s home country (Montag-
liani and Giacalone 1998); emotional distress (Furukawa and Shibayama 1995);
dysfunctional communication (Gao and Gudykunst 1991; Okazaki-Luff 1991);
culture shock (Pederson 1995); depression, anxiety, diminished school and
work performance, and difficulties in interpersonal relationships (Matsumoto et
al. 2001). In extreme cases negative adjustment results in antisocial behaviour
(gangs, substance abuse, crime) and even suicide. Fortunately all sojourners do
not experience this wide range of psychological and physical health problems,
but most have probably experienced some of these problems at some point in
their sojourn.
Intercultural experience is comprised of continuous adaptation and adjust-
ment to the differences with which we engage every day. This engagement is not
easy because of the occurrence of misunderstandings due to cultural differences.
Our ethnocentric and stereotypic ways of thinking, which are themselves normal
psychological functions, make it easy for us to create negative value judgments
about those differences and misunderstandings. Negative emotions are also
associated with these judgments. These negative reactions make it difficult for