Page 104 - Handbooks of Applied Linguistics Communication Competence Language and Communication Problems Practical Solutions

82 David Matsumoto, Seung Hee Yoo and Jeffrey A. LeRoux

The four main ingredients to personal growth in relation to dealing with cul-
tural differences in our model, therefore, are Emotion Regulation (ER), Critical
Thinking (CT), Openness (OP), and Flexibility (FL). These are psychological
skills that are internal, and we call them the psychological engine of adaptation
and adjustment. They are the psychological mechanisms by which intercultural
success or stagnation, personal growth or vindication, will occur. Of these ER is
the key ingredient as it is the gatekeeper of the growth process, because if we
cannot put our inevitable negative emotions in check, it is impossible to engage
in what is clearly higher order thinking about cultural differences.
These psychological processes are crucial to intercultural adjustment. It
does not matter how much information about host or home culture, or the degree
of language skills one may have; if one cannot regulate emotions, think criti-
cally about situations, events, and people, and does not have the openness of
mind and flexibility to adopt alternative positions to what one is familiar with and
accustomed to, it is difficult to develop ICC. If, however, one has these psycho-
logical attributes, then one has the psychological engine that will allow one to
use knowledge and language in order to weather the storms of intercultural con-
flicts, rise above them, become a stronger, wiser, and more multicultural person.
The model we propose is similar to the concepts of assimilation and accom-
modation proposed by Piaget that explain how cognitive development occurs
(Cowan 1978; Dasen 1976; Piaget and Campbell 1976; Piaget, Elkind and Fla-
vell 1969; Piaget, Gruber and Vonèche 1977). Piaget suggested that infants and
children attempt to adapt to their environments by first assimilating the environ-
ment into their existing cognitive schemas. When the environment does not
match their schemas, infants and children accommodate, that is, alter their exist-
ing schemas or add to them, thereby increasing cognitive complexity. While
Piaget’s theory of cognitive development focused on the process of assimilation
and accommodation, what fueled accommodation, that is cognitive growth, was
the negative affect that occurred when infants attempted to assimilate the en-
vironment into their existing schemas and they did not fit; that is, negative affect
fueled cognitive development (Cowan 1978; Piaget 1952). In the same vein we
propose that negative emotional experiences fuel the need to adapt and readapt
to the environment. Those who adapt in positive, constructive ways will experi-
ence positive adjustment outcomes while those who do not will experience
negative outcomes.
These assumptions sit well with research in other areas of psychology. Mari-
tal satisfaction, for instance, which is not unlike intercultural communication, is
correlated with the ability of the couple to deal with and resolve differences of
opinions and conflicts, and not necessarily by the amount of positive experi-
ences they have together (Carstensen, Gottman and Levenson 1995; Gottman
and Levenson 1986, 1992, 1999, 2000; Levenson and Gottman 1983). Conflict
resolution skills are one of the keys to a happy marriage, and we believe they are