Page 130 - Handbooks of Applied Linguistics Communication Competence Language and Communication Problems Practical Solutions

108 Nathalie van Meurs and Helen Spencer-Oatey

Table 2. Cultural Values, Self-Construals and the Conflict Process
(Derived from Ting-Toomey 1999: 211–212)

Individualist Values and Collectivist Values and
Independent Self-Construals Interdependent Self-Construals
1. Conflict is perceived as closely re- 1. Conflict is weighted against the
lated to the goals or outcomes that face threat incurred in the conflict
are salient to the respective indi- negotiation process; it is also in-
vidual conflict parties in a given terpreted in the web of ingroup/
conflict situation. outgroup relationships.
2. Communication in the conflict 2. Communication in the conflict
process is viewed as dissatisfying process is perceived as threaten-
when the conflict parties are not ing when the conflict parties push
willing to deal with the conflict for substantive discussion before
openly and honestly. proper facework management.
3. Conversely, communication in the 3. Communication in the conflict in-
conflict process is viewed as sat- teraction is viewed as satisfying
isfying when the conflict parties when the conflict parties engage in
are willing to confront the conflict mutual face-saving and face-giv-
issues openly and share their feel- ing behaviour and attend to both
ings honestly (i.e. assertively but verbal and nonverbal signals.
not aggressively). 4. The conflict process or outcome is
4. The conflict outcome is perceived perceived as unproductive when
as unproductive when no tangible face issues are not addressed and
outcomes are reached or no plan relational/group feelings are not
of action is developed. attended to properly.
5. The conflict outcome is perceived 5. The conflict process or outcome is
as productive when tangible sol- defined as productive when both
utions are reached and objective conflict parties can claim win–win
criteria are met. results on the facework front in
6. Effective and appropriate man- addition to substantive agreement.
agement of conflict means indi- 6. Appropriate and effective man-
vidual goals are addressed and dif- agement of conflict means that the
ferences are dealt with openly, mutual ‘faces’ of the conflict par-
honestly, and properly in relation ties are saved or even upgraded in
to timing and situational context. the interaction and they have dealt
with the conflict episode strategi-
cally in conjunction with substan-
tive gains or losses.