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(2000) proposes a good approach by outlining four major organizational knowledge
acquisition processes:
1. Grafting
2. Vicarious learning
3. Experiential learning
4. Inferential processes
Grafting involves the migration of knowledge between fi rms — a learning process
whereby the fi rm gains access to task- or process-specifi c knowledge that was
not previously available within the fi rm. This is typically achieved through mergers,
acquisitions, or alliances in that there is a direct passing of knowledge between fi rms
( Huber 1991 ). An example would be technology transfer or other forms of explicit
knowledge.
Vicarious learning processes occur through one fi rm observing other fi rms ’ demon-
strations of techniques or procedures. For example, benchmarking studies where
companies can adopt the best practices of other industry leaders. This knowledge is
more tacit than that obtained through grafting ( Inkpen and Beamish 1997 ) as it
involves learning how to do something or know-how.
Experiential knowledge acquisition involves knowledge acquisition within a given
fi rm — knowledge that is created by doing and practicing. Repetition-based experience
relies on the learning curve to establish routines and procedures. This type of knowl-
edge is initially tacit but can be easily codifi ed and transferred ( Pennings, Barkema,
and Douma 1994 ; Starbuck 1992 ). Argyris and Schon (1978) refer to the processes of
single and double-loop learning. Single loop learning involves the refi nement and
improvement of existing procedures and technologies as opposed to developing new
ones (adapting for effi ciency). In inferential knowledge acquisition processes (e.g.,
Mintzberg 1990 ), learning is within the fi rm and occurs by doing; however, knowl-
edge acquisition occurs primarily through interpretation of events, states, changes,
and outcomes relative to the activities undertaken and decisions that were made.
The type of learning is experimental and deductive, and this type of learning
seeks to make sense of occurrences and to establish causal links between actions
and outcomes. This type of learning is sometimes referred to as double-loop learning,
as it involves changing underlying assumptions and frameworks (adapting for
effectiveness).
The results of all four types of organizational knowledge capture will ultimately
reside in some type of knowledge repository. This is the recipient of organizational
memory and containers are usually some form of database on an intranet or extranet.