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378 Chapter 11

• Implies that the knowledge is captured and its reuse is promoted to increase orga-
nizational learning (i.e., to avoid recurrence or to promote repeat application)
Lessons learned are typically obtained after performing one or more project postmor-
tem sessions, after action reviews or any type of refl ective exercise that asks partici-
pants to identify what worked well and what could be improved. Other tools include
continuity books, knowledge books, dark-side reviews, and any other process that
documents what has been learned in order to preserve this knowledge in the organi-
zational memory and in order to be able to pass along or transfer this knowledge to
people who will have to perform the same tasks.
What then, is the difference between a lesson learned and a best practice? The term
best practice is often associated with a success, an innovative discovery, or a tried and
tested method for accomplishing a task (positive experiences); whereas a lesson learned
more often implies the documentation of a critical mistake or failure in order to avoid
repeating it (negative experiences). However, as the defi nitions given above illustrate,
lessons learned ideally address both positive and negative experiences.
In general, two types of learning occur in organizations; top down and
bottom up.
1. Top-down learning is a strategic learning method whereby management, at any
given level, decides that a certain piece of knowledge is vital to the organization and
must be learned by its employees.
2. Bottom-up learning happens in the actual “ doing ” of tasks, it is experiential
learning and results from both positive and negative events ( O ’ Dell and Grayson
2001 ).
Lessons learned are concerned with capturing the results of bottom-up learning, as
they are a distillation of valuable employee experiences.

The Lessons Learned Process
Effective knowledge management processes involves the identifi cation, creation,
acquisition, dissemination, and reuse of knowledge assets to provide a strategic advan-
tage. The lessons learned process has a similar cycle of activities, as described in
fi gure 11.1 (adapted from US GAO 2002 ).
The steps of the process include:
Collection Capture of lessons through structured or unstructured processes, such as
after-action or project reviews, meetings, training evaluations, and so on. Capture may
be done at all levels: individual, community, and organization.