Page 328 - Managing Change in Organizations

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Models of organizational culture
Models of organizational culture

Various influential models are identified, as follows.

Hofstede

Hofstede (1968) identifies five characteristics of culture in his study of national,
cultural influences:

■ Power distance. The extent to which, in a given national context, people expect
there to be differences in the level of power across groups and between indi-
viduals. A high power-distance score represents an expectation that some peo-
ple can wield substantial power. A low score is an expectation of equal
influence over decisions.
■ Uncertainty avoidance. In essence a national attitude to risk taking and coping
with uncertainty.
■ Individualism vs collectivism. People are either concerned for themselves prima-
rily or act as a member of a group, subordinating individual to group goals.
■ Masculinity vs femininity. The contrast between male values of competitiveness,
aggression and ambition with feminine values emphasizing the value of oth-
ers and of developmental rather than simply economic goals.
■ Long-term vs short-term orientation.
Using attitude data from a major multinational organization Hofstede was able
to show national differences on these factors.

Deal and Kennedy

Deal and Kennedy (1982) defined organizational culture in a more pragmatic
way, which turns out not to be very helpful. They define it as ‘the way things get
done around here’. On the face of it this is based on organizational reality.
However, it seems likely that we can hardly explain why different organizations
do things differently as being definitive of the organization’s culture. The organ-

izations concerned may deploy different technology and therefore do things dif-
ferently. Does that mean they had different cultures at the outset. Of course,
different cultures may emerge over time in those circumstances.
More helpfully, they go on to define measures of corporate culture depending
on two factors:
■ Feedback. The speed of feedback and the scope of it have an impact on behav-
iour in an organization.
■ Risk. The level of uncertainty applying to an organization.

Using these factors Deal and Kennedy propose four culture types. In turn, these are
the ‘tough-guy’ or ‘macho’ culture in which rewards are high and feedback imme-
diate. Fast moving financial and investment companies might be typical but Deal
and Kennedy note that this culture can emerge in hospitals, sports organizations
and police forces. Next is the ‘work-hard/play-hard’ culture, emerging where risks

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