Page 87 - Managing Change in Organizations

CarnCh04v3.qxd 3/30/07 4:16 PM Page 70

Chapter 4 ■ Theories of change: traditional models
argue in Chapter 18, it becomes important to understand the level of ambition
being adopted in any change programme before deciding how to approach the
design and implementation issues.
Linear models tend to understate the role of external stakeholders such as gov-
ernment, shareholders, fund managers and so on. Where such groups are taken
into account they tend to incorporate them within the organization’s system. Only
when we examine complexity theory in the next chapter will such an open systems
approach be examined, and even then there is little real attempt to consider let
alone research the impact of external stakeholders other than in the case of merg-
ers and acquisitions and, to a lesser extent, turnarounds and strategic alliances.
Note, however, that the main focus in these latter studies remains targeted on the
internal changes rather than the orientation or intentions of external stakeholders.
The linear paradigm reflects the influence of Lewin’s well-known three-stage
model of change (Lewin, 1947), which encompasses the following:

1 Unfreezing, a stage within which those involved come to recognize that some-
thing must change.
2 Moving, during which stage new ideas are tested and new ways of working
emerge.
3 Followed by refreezing, a stage within which new behaviours, skills and atti-
tudes are stabilized and commitment to change is achieved.

This view of change has influenced many subsequent authors, notably Kotter
(1988). But it is too easy to condemn these ideas as being unitary in focus (tak-
ing only the concerns of the most powerful into account) and linear in approach
(viewing change as sequential). Most authors do not take a unitary approach as
such although some argue that even where this is not explicit such an approach
can be inferred. Be that as it may, there are obvious exceptions. For example, one
proposed developmental model comprises four stages:
1 The conceptualizing process.
2 The motivation process.
3 The commitment process.

4 Implementation and evaluation (implementing new ideas and installing the
means for performance monitoring and evaluation).
This approach is based on learning theory ideas and while it assumes that
change is ‘driven’ by executives they are not conceived as being ‘all-knowing’.
Similarly, Dawson (2003) adds context and the politics of change to the mix.
His model comprises three stages, namely conception, transition (tasks, activities
and decisions) and operation (of new organizational arrangements). But he views
these stages as operating within a context (that is, markets for products and serv-
ices and for labour and skills) and the politics of change. In some senses the most
influential model of change to adopt the linear approach is Kotter (1996). He
identifies eight stages:
1 Establishing a sense of urgency.
2 Creating the guiding coalition.

70