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6. SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY OF MASS COMMUNICATION 131

extract the rule governing the specific judgments or actions exhibited by
others. Once they learn the rule, they can use it to judge or generate new
instances of behavior that go beyond what they have seen or heard.
Much human learning is aimed at developing cognitive skills on how
to gain and use knowledge for future use. Observational learning of
thinking skills is greatly facilitated by having models verbalize their
thoughts aloud as they engage in problem-solving activities (Bandura,
1986, 1997; Meichenbaum, 1984). The thoughts guiding their decisions
and action strategies are thus made observable for adoption.
Acquiring generative rules from modeled information involves at least
three processes: (a) extracting the generic features from various social
exemplars, (b) integrating the extracted information into composite rules,
and (c) using the rules to produce new instances of behavior. Through
abstract modeling, people acquire, among other things, standards for cat-
egorizing and judging events, linguistic rules of communication, thinking
skills on how to gain and use knowledge, and personal standards for reg-
ulating one’s motivation and conduct (Bandura, 1986; Rosenthal & Zim-
merman, 1978). Evidence that generative rules of thought and conduct
can be created through abstract modeling attests to the broad scope of
observational learning.
Modeling also plays a prominent role in creativity. Creativeness rarely
springs entirely from individual inventiveness. By refining preexisting
innovations, synthesizing them into new procedures, and adding novel
elements, something new is created (Bandura, 1986; Bolton, 1993; Fimrite,
1977). When exposed to models of differing styles of thinking and behav-
ing, observers vary in what they adopt and thereby create new blends of
personal characteristics that differ from the individual models. Modeling
new perspectives and innovative styles of thinking also fosters creativity
by weakening conventional mind-sets (Harris & Evans, 1973).

Motivational Effects

The discussion thus far has centered on the acquisition of knowledge,
cognitive skills, and new styles of behavior through observational learn-
ing. Social cognitive theory distinguishes among several modeling func-
tions, each governed by different determinants and underlying mecha-
nisms. In addition to cultivating new competencies, modeling influences
have strong motivational effects. Vicarious motivators are rooted in out-
come expectations formed from information conveyed by the rewarding
and punishing outcomes of modeled courses of action. Seeing others
gain desired outcomes by their actions can create outcome expectancies
that function as positive incentives; observed punishing outcomes can
create negative outcome expectancies that function as disincentives.