Page 251 - Media Effects Advances in Theory and Research

240 McLEOD, KOSICKI, McLEOD

because they imply different values and expectations as to how the news
media should operate (McLeod, Sotirovic, & Holbert, 1998). Worldviews
can be thought of as personal beliefs or lay theories about the world as it
is or appears to be (empirical) to them in contrast to values as normative
theories of the world as it ought to be.
Values that people hold as goals for their society and community have
strong implications for media use and political participation (Inglehart,
1977, 1990). Holding strong postmaterial values (freedom to express ideas,
helping each other, etc.) is strongly related to higher levels of public
affairs media use and discussion of issues and to reflection on how the
content of news and discussion fits into their lives (McLeod, Sotirovic,
Voakes, et al., 1998; McLeod et al., 2001; Sotirovic & McLeod, 2001). Hold-
ing of material values (order, control by defense and fighting crime, etc.)
tends to have a dampening effect on citizen action through more soft
entertainment media use and less-frequent discussions that deter political
engagement. Communication thus mediates the effects of worldviews
and values on informed participation. Values may also act as moderators
interacting with messages. Strength of values held by audience members
interact with the value framing of content to affect decision-making out-
comes (Shah, 2001).

News Media Orientations. The images or “common-sense theories”
that people hold about news affect how much they learn from news
(Kosicki & McLeod, 1990). Those who are skeptical about news quality
appear to process it more critically and thoughtfully and thereby learn
more (McLeod, Kosicki, Amor, Allen, & Philps, 1986). Those seeing news
as having underlying patterns also tend to learn more from news. Citizens
also differ in their level of agreement with various normative roles of the
news media. Those emphasizing the pluralistic functions of watchdog,
providing a forum for ideas, and helping people play active roles are
much more likely to attentively use the news media, thus indirectly stim-
ulating their knowledge and participation (McLeod, Sotirovic, Voakes, et
al., 1998; Sotirovic & McLeod, 2001). In contrast, those more strongly
advocating consensual functions are less knowledgeable and active due to
their higher levels of attending to soft news and entertainment television.

Gratifications Sought from News. Uses-and-gratifications research
originally was seen as an alternative rather than a complement to media
effects research. Evidence has mounted to support a more dynamic role.
Strength of motivation acted as a moderator in enhancing information
gain from party broadcasts in an early British study (Blumler & McQuail,
1969) and has been validated for effects in the United States (McLeod &
Becker, 1974). Gratifications sought may weaken as well as strengthen