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10. EFFECTS OF MEDIA VIOLENCE 281

Sparks and Sparks (2000) have recently noted, there is very little data to
conclusively establish the fact that programs containing media violence
are generally preferred over versions of the same programs that contain
no violence. A complete understanding of the impact of media violence
on viewers must include a much more comprehensive set of studies on
the attractions of violent entertainment than is currently available in the
literature.
One additional theme that holds promise to increase understanding
about the impact of media violence is the role of individual differences
(see chap. 19). Zillmann and Weaver (1997) demonstrated that males who
were high on psychoticism were more likely to be affected by media vio-
lence than males who were low on this variable. Similarly, Aluja-Fabregat
and Torrubia-Beltri (1998) found that variables such as sensation seeking,
neuroticism, and psychoticism correlated positively with favorability rat-
ings on violent cartoons.
Finally, we would note that there seem to be at least three assumptions
held in academic and political circles about the effects of media violence.
The first of these assumptions is that violent material is likely to produce
an effect rather than no effect and that this effect is more likely to be nega-
tive than positive. A second assumption is that violent media is more
likely to promote violent thinking and behavior than other kinds of media
depictions. A final assumption is that violent media is more deserving of
research concern and political and social action than are other types of
media depictions.
The first assumption is one that has inspired a host of research studies,
many of which are cited in this essay. It is an assumption that scholars
have tested repeatedly under various conditions, and our conclusion is
that the assumption is warranted. In contrast, the second two assump-
tions are ones that have inspired few studies and appear to us to be far
less warranted. That is, little if any research has been done that actually
compares the effects on aggressive behavior and thinking of other types
of media depictions or content with the effects of violent depictions. Yet,
there is certainly good reason to think that other types of media content
might inspire aggression as well. What might be the effects of exposure
to media depictions of hate speech or to successful people or other
images that foster frustration and jealousy? How do viewers respond to
political rhetoric that promotes “legalized violence” that might be
encountered in depictions of war or in stories related to capital punish-
ment? Does speech that promotes the appeal of guns or other weapons
affect aggressive behavior in viewers? What about discussions that objec-
tify others, demean others, or ridicule members of particular social or
ethnic groups? Answers to these questions will only come with new lines
of systematic research that are not evident in the current literature.