Page 290 - Media Effects Advances in Theory and Research

10. EFFECTS OF MEDIA VIOLENCE 279

Social Learning. The theory of social learning was applied to media
violence by Bandura (1965; also see chap. 6). This theory projected that
media characters who serve as models for aggressive behavior may be
attended to by viewers and, depending on whether the behaviors are
rewarded or punished, would either disinhibit or inhibit imitation of the
behavior respectively. As discussed earlier, Bandura’s program of studies
offered considerable support for social learning processes. Bandura’s
more recent statement of social cognitive theory (chap. 6) shows how the
initial formulation has evolved over the years and currently stands as one
of the major theoretical options for understanding the effects of media
violence.

Priming. Chapter 5 deals with the idea of priming, so we do not
extensively review the role of this process in explaining how media vio-
lence can cause aggressive behavior. Initially, Berkowitz focused attention
on media violence by emphasizing the “aggressive cues” contained in this
type of content. He thought that these cues could combine psychologi-
cally with a viewer’s emotional state of anger or frustration and trigger
subsequent aggression. Jo and Berkowitz (1994) revised this formulation
to focus on the fact that media violence could prime thoughts of aggres-
sive behavior and, consequently, make actual aggressive behavior more
likely. The priming hypothesis has received extensive support in the con-
text of media violence (Anderson, 1983; Bushman & Geen, 1990). Perhaps
most significantly, Zillmann and Weaver (1999) discuss how Bargh and
his associates have extended the priming idea so that it can account not
just for short-term effects of aggression after media exposure, but long-
term effects as well (Bargh, 1984; Bargh, Lombardi, & Higgins, 1988).
Summarizing the notion of priming, Jo and Berkowitz (1994) commented
on one result by stating that, “It is as if the thought of the particular action
had, to some degree, activated the motor program linked to this action”
(p. 48).

Arousal. In his theory of excitation transfer, Zillmann (1991)
advanced the notion that the arousal-inducing properties of media vio-
lence were very important for understanding the intensity of emotional
reactions that occur immediately after viewing. For example, when view-
ers became angry after exposure to a highly arousing violent depiction,
this arousal could subsequently transfer to the anger and intensify it—
making aggressive behavior more likely. Similarly, the arousal could also
intensify a positive emotion that might occur subsequent to viewing. The
theory of excitation transfer is well documented in the study of media
effects, and the arousing properties of media violence must be taken seri-
ously given the evidence from studies by Zillmann and his colleagues.