Page 321 - Media Effects Advances in Theory and Research

310 HARRIS AND SCOTT

1985; Greenberg & Busselle, 1996; Greenberg & Hofschire, 2000). Also, in
1994, compared to 1985, there were more themes of (a) negative conse-
quences of sex, (b) rejection of sexual advances, and (c) portrayals of rape.
None of these three themes had been very common in the studies of the
1970s and 1980s. Not surprisingly, R-rated movies and sex magazines had
more explicit sex than appeared on television (Greenberg et al., 1993).
The major focus of this article is on sexually explicit materials, includ-
ing, though not limited to, what is generally called “pornography,” both
violent and nonviolent. The term pornography is highly value laden, how-
ever, and as such is rather scientifically imprecise. Thus, we will most
often refer to such materials as “sexually explicit” rather than “porno-
graphic,” although that term is so widely used that it cannot be com-
pletely avoided. When we consider effects of sex in the media, we need to
look more widely than at what is typically considered “pornography.”

EFFECTS OF CONSUMING SEXUAL MEDIA

Although many people might wish it otherwise, sex apparently does sell,
even very explicit sex. Sexually oriented print, video, broadcast, and Inter-
net materials are highly profitable commercially, a condition that in itself
assures their continued presence. Three major classes of effects of this expo-
sure have been identified, namely arousal, attitudinal changes, and behav-
ioral effects. See Gunter (2001); Linz and Malamuth (1993); Lyons, Ander-
son, and Larson (1994); Malamuth (1993); Malamuth and Impett (in press);
Pollard (1995); and the papers in Greenberg et al. (1993) and Brown et al.
(2002) for more detailed reviews of various types of effects of sex in media.
Research on effects of sex in the media have been guided by a variety of
theoretical perspectives. Although these theories are not the focus of this
chapter, the reader is referred to other chapters in this volume for thorough
explications and reviews of these different perspectives: Gerbner, Gross,
Morgan, Shanahan, and Signorielli (cultivation theory, chap.3), Bandura
(social cognitive theory, chap. 6), Petty (attitude change through the Elabo-
ration Likelihood Model, chap. 7), and Rubin (uses-and-gratifications per-
spective, chap. 20). Each of these perspectives has informed and guided
certain areas of research on the effects of sexual media. These theoretical
influences are alluded to in the following sections, although the focus of
the rest of the chapter is on the effects of sexual media.

Arousal

One straightforward effect of consuming sexual media is sexual arousal,
the heightened physiological state that energizes or intensifies sexual
behavior. Arousal may be measured by a self-rating (“How aroused are