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The Effects of Microaggressive Stress 103

microaggressions that are environmentally, verbally, and behaviorally directed
at them. The range of responding is immense and depends on many factors.
Some of the coping responses seem functional and adaptive (taking care of
the self and educating the perpetrator), while others may prove dysfunctional
and maladaptive (becoming depressed, overconsumption of alcohol, engaging in
risky sexual behavior, striking back in anger). Even when a behavior appears
functional in the moment — deciding to do nothing for fear of retaliation — we
have seen how long - term consequences can be detrimental to both the bio-
logical and psychological well - being of the person.
Microaggressions can signal a hostile and invalidating climate, threaten the
physical safety, self - esteem, and racial/gender/sexual identity of the target,
and be oppressive. Forced compliance (either accept White, straight, and male

definitions of the situation or suffer the consequences) is a chronic demand
placed on marginalized groups in this society. We outline below fi ve observed
reactions that have either adaptive or maladaptive implications: (1) hyper-
vigilance and skepticism, (2) forced compliance (surviving or being coopted),
(3) rage and anger, (4) fatigue and hopelessness, and (5) strength through
adversity.

Hypervigilance and Skepticism
Microaggressive stressors may partially explain the “ cultural mistrust ” or
“ healthy paranoia ” in the form of suspiciousness, skepticism, and hyper-
vigilance directed toward majority group members (Ridley, 2005; Sue & Sue,
2008). Some have referred to this form of behavior as “ anticipatory racism
reaction ” developed because of multiple experiences of stereotyping, prejudice,
and discrimination (Ponterotto et al., 2006). In the area of race relations, for
example, people of color have experienced historical racism through govern-
mental actions that include forced enslavement, taking of lands from indigenous
groups, and the incarceration of Japanese Americans.
This historical racist legacy is compounded by the everyday subtle forms
of racism that may deprive people of color equal access and opportunity.
Thus the lack of trust or skepticism exhibited by many marginalized groups
toward those in the majority society has become a healthy functional sur-
vival mechanism as well as a sanity check. On the functional end, it is an
adaptive mechanism used to survive and even thrive, but on the other side,
it may result in an inability to form close relations with members of the
majority culture. In the extreme case, marginalized group members may

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