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Racial Microaggressions and Native Americans 155

Risco, 2006). There is an abundance of health statistics, however, that address
the physical and medical problems of this group. As mentioned previously,
heart disease, tuberculosis, and obesity (48% of women and 40% of men are
overweight) (Johnson et al., 1995) are much higher for Latinas/os, and death
rates from heart disease, pneumonia, asthma, and liver disease are high
among Puerto Ricans (Flack et al., 1995). While a strong case can be made that
actual or perceived discrimination may be at the root of many of these health

problems, a direct causal link is difficult to make. It has been shown that per-
ceived discrimination is linked to many medical problems, such as higher
blood pressure among Mexican Americans (James, Lovato, & Khoo, 1994).
Perceived discrimination does seem to be linked to psychological distress,
depression, higher levels of stress, and anxiety (Finch, Kolody, & Vega, 2000;
Lopez, 2005). The evidence regarding psychological well - being is more mixed,
but low levels do seem to be a result of perceived discrimination (Hwang &
Goto, 2008; Moradi & Risco, 2006). It has been hypothesized that a sense of

well - being is most strongly reflected in self - esteem; high self - esteem indi-

cates high sense of well - being, while low self - esteem reflects low well - being

(Moradi & Risco, 2006). The mixed findings, they contend, fail to consider
the “ sense of self - control, ” which mediates the perceived discrimination and
well - being link. When this link is considered as an intervening variable, then

perceived discrimination indirectly influences not only a psychological sense

of well - being, but also personal efficacy. Thus, like African Americans and
Asian Americans, it appears that Latinas/os are psychologically impacted by
overt and covert forms of prejudice and discrimination.

RACIAL MICROAGGRESSIONS AND
NATIVE AMERICANS

Native Americans are a highly heterogeneous group, and represent less
than 1% of the population of the United States, with over 500 distinct tribes
(Trimble & Thurman, 2002). The population is relatively young, with fewer
married - couple families, higher female householders without husbands, and
a much lower number of high school graduates (U.S. Bureau of the Census,
2001). The Native American Indian experience is unique and not comparable
to any other ethnic group. First, racial/ethnic groups who voluntarily came
(as immigrants) or were forced to come (as refugees and enslaved persons) to
the United States struggled to gain resources and equality. Native Americans
had resources and were the original indigenous people of this country.

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