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4 Dynamic Workflow 127
2. Every activity is mediated by artifacts, either external (order forms, delivery
invoices) or internal (cognitive – compiling freight routes, knowledge, and expe-
rience of order staff)
3. Each individual activity is almost always part of collective activities, structured
according to the work practice in which they take place. For example, a order
cannot be fulfilled without reference to a diversity of other information, such as
carrier availability, financial arrangements, stockists, and so on. Thus collective
activities are organized according to a division of labor
4. Finally, human activity can be described as a hierarchy with three levels: activi-
ties realized through chains of actions, which may be performed through opera-
tions:

An activity consists of one or more actions, and describes the overall objective
or goal
An action equates to a single task carried out to achieve some preconceived
result. For example, an order fulfillment activity consists of a number of
actions: (1) creating an order request, (2) filling the order, (3) appointing a
carrier, (4) receiving payment, and (5) final delivery. Each action is achieved
through operations determined by the actual conditions in the context of the
activity
Operations describe the actual performance of the action, and are dependent
on the context or conditions that exist for each action. Exactly how the carrier
appointment is performed, for example, depends clearly on the concrete con-
ditions, for example, the distance, the type of carrier requested, the size and
weight of the freight, availability of appropriate carriers, and so on

4.3.2 Principles Derived from Activity Theory

Ten fundamental principles, representing an interpretation of the central themes of
Activity Theory applicable to an understanding of organizational work practices,
have been derived and are summarized below.
Principle 1 – Activities are hierarchical: An activity consists of one or more
actions. Each action consists of one or more operations.
Principle 2 – Activities are communal: An activity almost always involves a
community of participants working towards a common objective.
Principle 3 – Activities are contextual: Contextual conditions and circum-
stances deeply affect the way the objective is achieved in any activity.
Principle 4 – Activities are dynamic: Activities are never static but evolve
asynchronously, and historical analysis is often needed to understand the current
context of the activity.
Principle 5 – Activities are mediated: An activity is mediated by tools, rules,
and divisions of labor.