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ROBOT EXPLORERS 81

physiological effects (such as wasting of muscles) that are not fully
understood by researchers. Robots do not need air, food, or water.
They are much more resistant to radiation, and some space probes
have continued to function more than two decades after launch.
Proponents of manned space exploration point out that no robot
has the resourcefulness needed to deal with unforeseen emergencies.
(This resourcefulness enabled the astronauts in Apollo 13 to survive
their harrowing journey around the Moon.) Robots also lack the broad
intelligence and versatility of people. A human geologist on the scene
may be able to make better decisions about where and how to explore
than a robot and its earthbound controllers.
Advocates of human exploration in space also point out that people
identify much more strongly with their fellow humans than with
machines, no matter how clever. They argue that support for the
space program declined when people stopped doing interesting things
in space. Ultimately, only by going to other worlds themselves can
humans decide whether they can (or want to) live there.
As of the first decade of the 21st century, the edge seems to belong
to the robots. Despite various presidential proclamations, no manned
mission to Mars has yet been scheduled. Perhaps as the century pro-
gresses our robots will become so sophisticated that they can explore
with little direction needed from Earth, while sending back such a
broad and rich stream of data that humans can experience other
worlds in virtual reality without having to undergo the perilous journey
themselves.

field, the new rovers could travel farther than that in a single day.
Spirit and Opportunity were still operating more than two years
after their arrival on Mars. Nevertheless, these and future rovers
owe much to the engineering and operational knowledge gained by
Shirley and her colleagues from Sojourner.

Forging a New Career

Shirley retired from JPL and the Mars program in 1998 and began
a new career as a writer and management consultant, drawing upon
her decades of experience in managing cutting-edge engineering and