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mentoring and individual performance 297
Fagenson, 1989; Koberg, Boss, Chappell, & Ringer, 1994). Through the vocational ment-
oring function, mentors can create opportunities for prot´eg´es through special assign-
ments and networking. These opportunities may lead to career advancement. In addition,
prot´eg´es can get help and advice on career decisions from mentors, which is critical in
managing a successful career. Mentoring has also been related to organizational so-
cialization (Ostroff & Kozlowski, 1993) and reduced turnover intentions (Scandura &
Viator, 1994). Prot´eg´es tended to feel more in tune with the organization’s way of think-
ing and doing things, more nurtured and supported during the promotion process, and
may be more aware of organizational politics (Dirsmith & Covaleski, 1985; Fagenson,
1988). Thus, as a learning forum, mentoring provides job-related and personal feed-
back, allowing prot´eg´es to test new ideas and learn new behaviors (Chao et al., 1992;
Ostroff & Kozlowski, 1993). Lankau and Scandura (1997) found support for mentoring
as a contributor to socialization and learning by providing a means of information dis-
semination and support for continuous learning. More research is needed to determine
how the three mentoring aspects (vocational, psychosocial, and role modeling) relate to
attitudinal outcomes and individual learning.

BENEFITS TO MENTORS

Ragins and Scandura (1994) also investigated the potential benefits that mentors may
receive from the mentoring relationship. By contributing to future generations, mentors
can get a sense of immortality (Erikson, 1963) believing that they have left a mark on the
next generation as a result of the mentor–prot´eg´e relationship. Mentors also often feel
the internal satisfaction of passing wisdom, knowledge and insight on to more junior
persons in the organization (Levinson et al., 1978). In identifying and developing prot´eg´e
talent, mentors receive recognition from peers and superiors. Additionally, mentors may
engage in mentoring because they receive support from loyal prot´eg´es and advanced
technical support. Kram (1985) considered these mentor benefits to be tangible support
that provides a means from which the mentor may improve his or her own job per-
formance. Mullen and Cooper (1994) found additional support for mentor benefits in
the form of valuable work-related information from their prot´eg´es. Loyal prot´eg´es can
also provide psychological support to the mentor (Kram, 1985). Managers may be more
highly motivated to mentor others when the organization has a developmental culture
(Aryee, Chay, & Chew, 1996). In a follow-up study, Ragins and Scandura (1999) found
support that the formation of the mentoring relationship involves an intergenerational
process. Mentors may thus base their decisions to mentor others on their own experi-
ences as prot´eg´es; those who experienced positive experiences as a prot´eg´e may thus
be more likely to become mentors in the future. Having prot´eg´es may positively impact
the individual performance of the mentor. More research is needed to explore perfor-
mance and other benefits that mentors may receive from the mentoring relationship.

BENEFITS TO THE ORGANIZATION

The benefits of mentoring to the organization are another area worthy of additional
research. Zey (1984) proposed that the benefits of mentoring to the organization in-
cluded better integration and socialization of employees, reduction in turnover, improved
organizational communication, more effective management development, improved