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236 CHAPTER 9 Ethnography

extended periods of interaction and observation, researchers may find themselves in
unfamiliar environments for long periods of time. This time may be spent juggling
between two complex and intertwined goals: understanding how to navigate the dy-
namics of these unfamiliar settings and conducting the observations that provide the
data for subsequent analysis. This can be a challenge, to say the least.
Researchers are often advised to carefully consider how well suited they are for
a given project before embarking on ethnographic projects (Agar, 1980; Angrosino,
2007). In some cases personal tastes and preferences may make participation in cer-
tain studies inadvisable: an otherwise highly capable HCI researcher who is uncom-
fortable with the sight of blood might not be a good choice for our hypothetical
scenario of information systems in intensive-care units.
Other considerations involve differences in background. Researchers may be eth-
nically, culturally, or socio-economically different from members of the group being
studied and these differences might prevent them from being complete participants.
Subtler forms of bias are also a concern: as individuals with distinct perspectives, we
pay more attention to some details than others, often in ways that we are unaware of.
Ethnographers should strive to work past such biases to the greatest extent possible
(Angrosino, 2007). Bias-awareness training, careful attention to methodology—includ-
ing rigorous documentation of evidence—and the use of multiple researchers (Agar,
1980) are among the techniques that might be used to overcome the inevitable biases.

9.4.1 SELECTING A SITE OR GROUP OF INTEREST
Selecting a target of ethnographic research is in many ways similar to selecting cases
for a case study (Section 7.7). You will want to find groups that are interesting, logis-
tically workable, and committed to supporting the goals of the study.
Selection may not be an issue. HCI ethnographies conducted in the interest of
understanding the requirements of a system for a specific customer may not have a
great deal of latitude in the choice of site. If the intensive-care information system is
to be used at a specific hospital, then that is where the research should be conducted.
In some cases, you may be interested in finding groups that are representative of
similar instances, while in others you may wish to study extreme cases. These goals
will influence your choice of site: if you want to understand how technologies are
used in schools, you might look for sites that have average funding levels and rep-
resentative student bodies to get a representative understanding. On the other hand,
comparison of extremes—for example, well-funded suburban schools with poorly
funded urban schools—might provide interesting contrasts.
There may be barriers to your involvement and participation in specific types of
ethnographic site. For instance, health-care systems in many countries protect the
data of patients receiving health-care services. You can't just walk in and start exam-
ining data and going along with teams of doctors or nurses. A similar problem occurs
in schools. You can't just walk into a school and spend time in a classroom. If there is
sensitive financial information, you can't just walk in and start taking part in discus-
sions at an investment bank. Similarly, governmental and military installations often
have sensitive data and discussions, so your presence may pose a challenge. For these