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The opposite extreme—minimal participation—addresses some of these con-
cerns while raising different issues. The complete observer (Gold, 1958) observes
without interacting directly, limiting participation to simply “being there” as events
of interest transpire. Complete observers remain detached from the subjects of their
observation—they rarely worry about “going native.” However, they do so at the
cost of losing out on a wealth of information. If a complete observer sees something
of interest that she does not understand, she does not ask a group member for clari-
fication: she simply does her best to interpret what she sees. As a result, complete
observers may at times misinterpret the particular details or significance of events
(Gold, 1958).
Usability testing (Chapter 10) is a research method that uses primarily obser-
vation, and not participation, in understanding what challenges users are having
with an interface. However, usability testing is generally a short-term data collec-
tion method, only focusing on a few individuals (generally not working together)
and generally not focused on groups, human dynamics, or context (Siegel and Dray,
2005). Furthermore, usability testing generally has the goal of simply finding and
fixing flaws in an interface, not understanding any higher-level research questions.
Usability testing tends to come into the picture after an interface feature (or multiple
potential interface features) has already been developed. Like participatory design,
usability testing is focused on the end product of design, although participatory de-
sign is an entire design lifecycle approach, whereas usability testing is one late-stage
activity. Ethnography is an approach to understanding the problem, whereas usability
testing is often a method for evaluating potential solutions (Siegel and Dray, 2005).
Most ethnographic projects in HCI avoid the extremes of complete participation
and observation, opting for an intermediate approach. Some ethnographers become
temporary members of the group that they are studying, with all participants fully
informed as to the nature of their participation. Possibilities include combining some
degree of participation with observation. These researchers might generally disclose
their role as researchers and then get more or less involved in group activities, some-
times participating, other times observing. One common approach is to “shadow”
group members—following them around as they go about their business, asking
questions as needed for clarification and interpretation.
These roles form a continuum of possible research approaches (see Figure 9.1).
Researchers may adopt multiple, evolving roles throughout the course of a single
project. One common approach is to begin research as a complete observer, using
initial findings to create questions and goals for more in-depth participation (Gold,
1958).
Given both the difficulty of truly becoming a member of a group and the pos-
sibilities of misinterpretation associated with observation from outside the group,
you might be tempted to observe a culture that you are already a member of. This
approach has some appealing aspects. If you are part of a group, you already have
access to group members, existing relationships, and trust. You also probably have
some curiosity about how the group works and why it works this way (Lofland et al.,
2006). Together, these factors give you a real head start. You may have to do a good