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education and, after completing their academic program, had to pass both state and
national certification exams. The researchers observed the tools and technologies
used by students, the activities and circumstances that occurred, and how the students
studied and practiced, both at the university and at their homes (Becvar and Hollan,
2007). The goal of this ethnographic research was to understand how dental hygiene
students learn, with the eventual goal of designing instructional technology to assist
students in their instructional program.

9.5.4 ETHNOGRAPHIES OF MOBILE AND UBIQUITOUS SYSTEMS
In taking computing beyond the desktop, mobile and ubiquitous systems create
context- sensitive environments where computing is part of some other, larger oppor-
tunity, instead of a primary focus of its own. Understanding how people make use of
these systems while traveling, meeting with friends, or going about their daily lives
presents intriguing challenges for ethnographers.
A study of the use of in-car global positioning systems (GPS) used ethnographic
techniques to understand how the tools changed perceptions of the larger environ-
ment and of the tasks of driving and navigating. To address these questions, a team
of researchers went along for several rides—some planned and some conducted
specifically for research purposes—with GPS users and, in some cases, additional
passengers. Data from these rides—which lasted between 1 and 3 hours—included
hundreds of pages of notes and transcriptions. Analysis of this data indicated that the
GPS systems led users to be both less engaged (they didn't have to worry so much
about seeing turns and landmarks) and more engaged (they were able to learn about
parks and other attractions that were nearby but not visible from the road) with the
surrounding environment (Leshed et al., 2008).
Ethnographic studies can be useful for understanding how technology use
changes over time. A study of iPhone users used ethnographic techniques to under-
stand how perceptions of the device changed over the course of several weeks. Six
participants were recruited on the basis of their expressed interest in purchasing an
iPhone. One week before purchasing the phone, each participant wrote a narrative
describing their expectations and completed a survey indicating the importance
of each expectation. After purchasing their phones, participants listed activities
related to the phone, estimated the time spent, picked important experiences, and
rated the product relative to each specific situation. Findings were used to build a
model that described the use of the iPhone as a sequence from anticipation of us-
ing it, to orientation to features, incorporation of the device into everyday life, and
then to identification with the phone as an important part of their lives (Karapano
et al., 2009).
Ethnographic investigations of ubiquitous computing have required some HCI re-
searchers to go into some unexpected places. One project examined the navigation
needs of firefighters, in the hopes of identifying opportunities for developing ubiq-
uitous systems that would help firefighters find their way out of hazardous, smoke-
filled environments. The research team developed a series of simulations—conducting