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15.3 Care and handling of research participants 467

study was approved by Stanford's Human Subjects Review Board, participants
signed an informed consent form, and a 1973 review from the American
Psychological Association determined that the study had been consistent
with existing ethical guidelines (Zimbardo, 2008b). Changing views on
responsible research—influenced at least in part by this—have led to a much
more conservative view of appropriate research. Philip Zimbardo publicly
apologized for his role in the study (Zimbardo, 2008b) and the establishment
of beneficence—maximizing of benefits while minimizing harm (The
National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and
Behavioral Research, 1979)—argued for research that would strive to avoid
the harms seen in the prison experiment. It is hard to imagine a study with this
degree of potential harm being approved by any modern IRB.

Specific definitions of the responsibilities of researchers grew out of concerns
about inappropriate medical procedures conducted during the mid-20th century (see
the Informed Consent: Origins and Controversies sidebar). In 1979, the National
Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral
Research published the Belmont Report (The National Commission for the Protection
of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research, 1979). This document
established three principles for the treatment of research participants: respect for
persons, beneficence, and justice. Respect for persons involves allowing individu-
als to make independent and autonomous decisions regarding their participation in
research. Researchers must allow participants to make judgments and must provide
the information necessary for making those judgments. Special consideration must
be given in cases of illness or disability that may limit an individual's ability to make
independent decisions. Beneficence refers to the need to minimize possible harm
while maximizing possible benefits. Justice requires that neither the burdens of par-
ticipating in research nor the benefits of the research should be limited to certain
populations, particularly when some groups of people may be easily manipulated
(The National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and
Behavioral Research, 1979). These principles form the basis for informed consent.

INFORMED CONSENT: ORIGINS AND CONTROVERSIES

Famous (or infamous) medical research experiments conducted during the mid-
20th century led to the development of modern concepts of informed consent
and appropriate treatment of research participants. Nazi Germany's use of
concentration camp prisoners in often brutal and barbaric medical experiments
led to the Nuremberg code, which established some of the principles behind
informed consent.

(Continued)