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per 24-hour period. However, even the smallest organisms such as
bacteria are hundreds of millions of base-pairs long and the human
genome is about 3 billion base pairs. At this rate, using the most mod-
ern Sanger sequencers, it will take almost three years to sequence the
human genome.
1.4 A New Sensing Tool for Decoding the Genome
Whole genome sequencing (WGS) has been the standard approach
for producing high-quality genome sequence data for more than 20
years. While other technologies exist, none has challenged the WGS
method significantly. There is, however, a growing need for a more
efficient and cost-effective approach for genome sequencing that will
deliver the high-quality data of conventional sequencing at a low cost.
To that end, U.S. and Australian scientists have pioneered a new
hybrid method for genomic sequencing that is faster and more cost-
effective than the WGS method alone. The new approach, combines
the best of new and old code-cracking methods for “fingerprinting”
the genetic basis of life. Using the genomes of six ocean bacteria, the
researchers tested the utility and cost-effectiveness of the new and
old methods and found that the new hybrid method was better than
either method on its own (see Fig. 1.4).

1.5 Mapping RNA Protein Folding Energy
Through Bio-Sensors
All the crucial proteins in our bodies must fold into complex shapes
to accomplish their predestined tasks. The snarled molecules grip
other molecules to move them around, to speed up important chemi-
cal reactions, or to take hold of our genes, turning them “on” and
“off” to affect which proteins our cells make.
In 2008, scientists discovered that RNA—the stringy molecule
that translates human genetic code into protein—can act as a protein
itself. RNA can form winding bundles that shut genes down or start
them up without the help of proteins. Since the discovery of these

FIGURE 1.4
CTGA—The CTGA GA C A CTGA
genome CTGA CTGA CT A CTGA
sequencing TGA
technique. CTGA A
G
CT A A GA C G CTGA
CTG C G CTGA
CTGA TGA C G CTGA
CTGA CTGA