Page 92 - Standards for K-12 Engineering Education

Standards for K-12 Engineering Education?

APPENDIX B 77

issues continually emerged during the analysis of engineering-related documents. Primary
among these were the social context for engineering, ethics, and interpersonal skills. Although
these did not meet the criteria for core engineering concepts established for this study,
engineering activity is clearly grounded in a larger system that reflects values, needs, and
impacts on societies and cultures. Engineering and technology are inherently social constructs
(Bijker et al., 1989), and contextual issues must be taken into consideration for core engineering
concepts to be formulated and understood in a meaningful way.

Two additional conceptual distinctions emerged in the analysis. These have to do with the
nature of problem solving and experimentation. First, problem solving emerged as a substantial
theme in all five data sets. This makes sense given the fundamental nature of engineering design.
Activities ranging from the clarification of design parameters relative to (often competing)
design constraints to problems associated with translating engineering theory into practical
outcomes all involve solving problems. Thus, on the level of practical implementation, a
compelling case can be made for including problem solving as a fundamental engineering
concept. On the conceptual level, however, several other issues emerged. First, when problem
solving is viewed generically, it extends far beyond engineering and technological activities. For
example, in the social sciences, problem solving applies to everything from international
relations to community relations to personal mental health issues (Custer, 1995). In fact, problem
solving has been classified in three major categories based on Newell and Simon’s (1972) notion
of problem space. The three problem spaces, defined in terms of activity goals, include
personal/social, scientific, and technological. Another issue pertinent to engineering is whether
problem solving represents an overarching concept that subsumes design, invention, and
troubleshooting (Custer, 1995).
Experimentation, like problem solving, emerged as a strong theme throughout the
analysis. Two issues were raised in discussions about including it as a core engineering concept.
First, the term “experimentation” is closely identified with science and the scientific method. In a
scientific context, experimentation connotes a specific methodology for establishing and testing
hypotheses with the goal of developing a theory. In an engineering context, experimentation has
more to do generally with incremental trial and error in making a design work (e.g., extending
human capabilities and meeting needs and wants). Thus, the argument can be made that the term
experimentation is more appropriately associated with science than with engineering. A related
issue is the extent to which engineering is considered as science and, as a consequence, whether
experimentation represents a formal analysis of applications of engineering theory.

Concluding Comments
The purpose of the study described in this paper was to identify a conceptual foundation
for secondary level engineering education. It should be apparent that this was a daunting task that
raised a number of associated conceptual and practical issues that have implications for the
serious consideration of engineering as an integral part of the K–12 curriculum. These issues
could significantly impact educational policy at the pre-college level where the case remains to
be made for including engineering content, as well as at the post-secondary level where there are
increasing calls for reform in engineering education. Areas that warrant further investigation
include the possible need for K–12 engineering standards, curricula, and teacher pre-service and
professional development. The central premise of this study is that these issues should be
addressed after the conceptual foundations have been carefully and thoughtfully developed.

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