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CHAPTER 5 • STRATEGIES IN ACTION 157

to minimize risk. Joint ventures and partnerships are often used to pursue an opportunity
that is too complex, uneconomical, or risky for a single firm to pursue alone. Such business
creations also are used when achieving and sustaining competitive advantage when an
industry requires a broader range of competencies and know-how than any one firm can
marshal. Kathryn Rudie Harrigan, professor of strategic management at Columbia
University, summarizes the trend toward increased joint venturing:

In today’s global business environment of scarce resources, rapid rates of technolog-
ical change, and rising capital requirements, the important question is no longer
“Shall we form a joint venture?” Now the question is “Which joint ventures and
cooperative arrangements are most appropriate for our needs and expectations?” fol-
lowed by “How do we manage these ventures most effectively?” 27
In a global market tied together by the Internet, joint ventures, and partnerships, alliances
are proving to be a more effective way to enhance corporate growth than mergers and acquisi-
tions. 28 Strategic partnering takes many forms, including outsourcing, information sharing,
joint marketing, and joint research and development. Many companies, such as Eli Lilly, now
host partnership training classes for their managers and partners. There are today more than
10,000 joint ventures formed annually, more than all mergers and acquisitions. There are
countless examples of successful strategic alliances, such as Internet coverage.
A major reason why firms are using partnering as a means to achieve strategies is
globalization. Wal-Mart’s successful joint venture with Mexico’s Cifra is indicative of how
a domestic firm can benefit immensely by partnering with a foreign company to gain sub-
stantial presence in that new country. Technology also is a major reason behind the need to
form strategic alliances, with the Internet linking widely dispersed partners. The Internet
paved the way and legitimized the need for alliances to serve as the primary means for cor-
porate growth.
Evidence is mounting that firms should use partnering as a means for achieving strate-
gies. However, the sad fact is that most U.S. firms in many industries—such as financial
services, forest products, metals, and retailing—still operate in a merger or acquire mode
to obtain growth. Partnering is not yet taught at most business schools and is often viewed
within companies as a financial issue rather than a strategic issue. However, partnering has
become a core competency, a strategic issue of such importance that top management
involvement initially and throughout the life of an alliance is vital. 29
Joint ventures among once rival firms are commonly being used to pursue strategies
ranging from retrenchment to market development.
Although ventures and partnerships are preferred over mergers as a means for achiev-
ing strategies, certainly they are not all successful. The good news is that joint ventures and
partnerships are less risky for companies than mergers, but the bad news is that many
alliances fail. Forbes has reported that about 30 percent of all joint ventures and partner-
ship alliances are outright failures, while another 17 percent have limited success and then
dissipate due to problems. 30 There are countless examples of failed joint ventures. A few
common problems that cause joint ventures to fail are as follows:
1. Managers who must collaborate daily in operating the venture are not involved
in forming or shaping the venture.
2. The venture may benefit the partnering companies but may not benefit customers,
who then complain about poorer service or criticize the companies in other ways.
3. The venture may not be supported equally by both partners. If supported unequally,
problems arise.
4. The venture may begin to compete more with one of the partners than the other. 31

Six guidelines for when a joint venture may be an especially effective means for
pursuing strategies are: 32
• When a privately owned organization is forming a joint venture with a publicly
owned organization; there are some advantages to being privately held, such as
closed ownership; there are some advantages of being publicly held, such as access