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230 PART 3 • STRATEGY IMPLEMENTATION

checks before workers could be terminated. In contrast to the United States, labor union
executives of large European firms sit on most boards of directors.
Job security in European companies is slowly moving toward a U.S. scenario, in
which firms lay off almost at will. From banks in Milan to factories in Mannheim,
European employers are starting to show people the door in an effort to streamline opera-
tions, increase efficiency, and compete against already slim and trim U.S. firms. Massive
U.S.-style layoffs are still rare in Europe, but unemployment rates throughout the continent
are rising quite rapidly. European firms still prefer to downsize by attrition and retirement
rather than by blanket layoffs because of culture, laws, and unions.
In contrast, reengineering is concerned more with employee and customer well-being
than shareholder well-being. Reengineering—also called process management, process
innovation, or process redesign—involves reconfiguring or redesigning work, jobs, and
processes for the purpose of improving cost, quality, service, and speed. Reengineering
does not usually affect the organizational structure or chart, nor does it imply job loss or
employee layoffs. Whereas restructuring is concerned with eliminating or establishing,
shrinking or enlarging, and moving organizational departments and divisions, the focus of
reengineering is changing the way work is actually carried out.
Reengineering is characterized by many tactical (short-term, business-function-spe-
cific) decisions, whereas restructuring is characterized by strategic (long-term, affecting all
business functions) decisions. Developed by Motorola in 1986 and made famous by CEO
Jack Welch at General Electric and more recently by Robert Nardelli, former CEO of
Home Depot, Six Sigma is a quality-boosting process improvement technique that entails
training several key persons in the firm in the techniques to monitor, measure, and improve
processes and eliminate defects. Six Sigma has been widely applied across industries from
retailing to financial services. CEO Dave Cote at Honeywell and CEO Jeff Immelt at
General Electric spurred acceptance of Six Sigma, which aims to improve work processes
and eliminate waste by training “select” employees who are given judo titles such as
Master Black Belts, Black Belts, and Green Belts.
Six Sigma was criticized in a 2007 Wall Street Journal article that cited many example
firms whose stock price fell for a number of years after adoption of Six Sigma. The tech-
nique’s reliance on the special group of trained employees is problematic and its use within
retail firms such as Home Depot has not been as successful as in manufacturing firms. 7

Restructuring
Firms often employ restructuring when various ratios appear out of line with competitors
as determined through benchmarking exercises. Recall that benchmarking simply involves
comparing a firm against the best firms in the industry on a wide variety of performance-
related criteria. Some benchmarking ratios commonly used in rationalizing the need for
restructuring are headcount-to-sales-volume, or corporate-staff-to-operating-employees,
or span-of-control figures.
The primary benefit sought from restructuring is cost reduction. For some highly
bureaucratic firms, restructuring can actually rescue the firm from global competition and
demise. But the downside of restructuring can be reduced employee commitment, creativ-
ity, and innovation that accompanies the uncertainty and trauma associated with pending
and actual employee layoffs. In 2009, Walt Disney merged its ABC television network
with its ABC Studios television production as part of a restructuring to cope with declining
advertising and shrinking viewership. Disney also is laying off employees and offering
buyouts to more than 600 executives. The Disney restructuring is paralleled by rival
General Electric Company’s merger of its NBC Network with its Universal Media Studios,
which is also a bid to cut costs. Ad revenues at the four largest television networks in the
United States fell 3 percent in 2009.
Another downside of restructuring is that many people today do not aspire to become
managers, and many present-day managers are trying to get off the management track. 8
Sentiment against joining management ranks is higher today than ever. About 80 percent of
employees say they want nothing to do with management, a major shift from just a decade
ago when 60 to 70 percent hoped to become managers. Managing others historically led to