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Author’s note
An earlier version of this essay was written as a ‘Background Paper’ for the
Annual Meeting of the International Communication Association,
Honolulu, 1985. I am grateful to Stuart Hall and Jennifer Daryl Slack for
the comments and advice on the first half. The second half of this paper
has benefited from discussions with many people, but I would especially
like to thank Kuan-Hsing Chen, Stuart Hall, Dick Hebdige and John
Clarke.