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100 Sustainable Cities and Communities Design Handbook

the total rural population has access to electricitydrepresent more than a third
of the total global unelectrified population alone (WEO). LEA countries have
traditionally relied on grid expansion as the pathway to increase energy access.
This conventional approach, however, has seen limited success. Remote
communities continue to experience persistent and pervasive “energy isolation
barriers” in the context of centralized, grid-based electrification as a result of
the multiple dimensions of geographic, economic, and political remoteness
(Alstone et al., 2015).
For instance, complex geography and diffuse population inflates the mar-
ginal cost of grid extension in many rural areas for poor nations, whereas the
economic limitations of such communities are reflected in low energy con-
sumption and the inability to afford central grid connection fees. The political
currency often required for central grid expansion often represents a further
social barrier for marginalized or opposition communities. As large-scale
public investment schemes, grid expansion has the potential to be subject to
domestic political disputes and divisions. Such divisions, corruption, and
mismanagement may lead to inconsistent priorities in investment or for entire
pockets of the population to be overlooked.
Furthermore, many of the energy-poor people also live in periurban areas
where connection to central grid can be difficult (Lee et al., 2016). The
financial cost of grid connection is a particularly heavy burden, and as a
result, many households remain outside the grid despite close proximity to
grid infrastructure. In Kenya, for example, the cost for connection is esti-
mated at about $400 per household, representing a significant cost barrier in a
country where the per capita income ranges around $1300 (Lee et al., 2016).
More than 31 million Nigerians (40% of total unelectrified) are estimated to
be “under the grid”dliving within 10 km of a transmission line but with no
connection (New Estimates). In Kenya, the “under the grid” population is
estimated at around 21 million (50% of total unelectrified) (Shedding New
Light).

DISTRIBUTED RENEWABLE ENERGY SOLUTIONS: PIVOTAL
TO UNIVERSAL ENERGY ACCESS

As such, achieving universal energy access and unlocking its subsequent
benefits will require a concerted focus on serving rural and off-grid commu-
nities with clean, affordable, and fast electricity solutions. DRE technologies,
which generate, distribute, and/or store energy services independently of a
centralized system, offer an unprecedented opportunity to accelerate the
transition to modern energy services in such remote areas by complementing
or substituting centralized systems while also offering significant cobenefits
such as improved health, positive impacts on income growth, women’s
empowerment, distributive equity, and climate change mitigation (REN21,
2016).