Page 98 - The Handbook of Persuasion and Social Marketing

Persuasion in the Political Context 91

frame. This is a remembered framework to be adapted to fit reality by
changing details as necessary (p. 355).

Creating a frame for interpreting a given situation is the first step in effec-
tive persuasion. It consists of mentally construing a representation of an
object or event on the basis of the memory schemata that have been formed
based on previous relevant experiences. This construed representation cre-
ates a delusive reference to a real object or event that existed or happened as
a matter of fact. In the realm of perception, framing can be illustrated by
ambiguous or reversible figures, which offer a chance for individuals to ex-
perience how such figures are perceived based on the experiences recorded
in their memories (Long & Toppino, 2004). The phenomenon of ambigu-
ous figures shows how easy it is to persuade someone to believe in the “fac-
tuality” of an object or event, as long as what the individual experiences
agrees with that person’s memory schema. A person can have many such
schemata; hence, multiple interpretations of the same event are possible.
The problem of persuasion consists of activating precisely the schema that
will trigger the desired behavior in a person who experiences a given event.
Minsky’s classical conception of framing (1977) laid the ground for re-
search in cognitive processes regarding perception, memory, and concep-
tual thinking. This conception is at the core of the definitions of framing
used in the field of political persuasive messaging. According to Entman
(2007, p. 164), framing is the “process of culling a few elements of per-
ceived reality and assembling a narrative that highlights connections
among them to promote a particular interpretation.” As defined by Gamson
and Modigliani (1987, p. 143), framing is “a central organizing idea or
story line that provides meaning to an unfolding strip of events, weaving a
connection among them. The frame suggests what the controversy is about
and the essence of the issue.” Frames, as Altheide (1997, p. 651) stated,
“are the focus, a parameter or boundary, for discussing a particular event.
Frames focus on what will be discussed, how it will be discussed, and
above all, how it will not be discussed.” Druckman and Nelson (2003)
stated specifically that framing effects occur when in the course of describ-
ing an issue or event, an emphasis on a subset of potentially relevant con-
siderations causes individuals to focus on these considerations when
constructing their opinions. Therefore, at a general level, the concept of
framing refers to subtle alterations in the statement or presentation of
judgments or choice problems, and, as Iyengar (1991) emphasized, fram-
ing effects refer to changes in decision outcomes resulting from these al-
terations. In contrast, Chong and Druckman (2007a) claimed that every
issue can be seen from a number of perspectives. Consequently, the