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164 Asia
(Dojunkai Foundation). The original public created an avalanche and tsunami that killed an
organization was formed in 1924 with the aim of estimated 14,524 people (Simkin and Siebert,
supplying both housing and work for earthquake 1994). Japan in fact leads the world’s volcanic
victims, but rapidly became known for innovations regions on this measure of natural disaster risk
in self-help (upgrading of slum areas) and with 1274 dated eruptions from 94 volcanoes
community approaches to new forms of housing (Simkin and Siebert, 1994). Japan also leads the
(of greater strength to withstand new earthquakes). world with 41 large explosive eruptions in the last
As is discussed below, such self-help organizations 10,000 years. Pyroclastic flows, one of the deadliest
are an essential part of the Japanese local response volcanic hazards, have occurred at 28 per cent of
to natural disasters, and their openness to including Japan’s eruptions (Siebert and Simkin, 1994).
visitors (especially foreign tourists) needs to be Other episodes of historical volcano activity are
examined in any analysis of how tourism may be also known to have generated tsunamis,
affected by such events in Japan. including:
The Tokyo earthquake was followed by the
massive Kobe (Great Hanshin) earthquake of 17 • landslides from Komagatake volcano on
January 1995. Lasting for only about 20 seconds Hokkaido which killed 700 people in 1640;
(M6.8) the Kobe earthquake nevertheless • a landslide on Oshima-Oshima volcano
extensively damaged infrastructure, left 300,000 (Hokkaido) which killed 1474 people on
homeless and killed in excess of 6400 people. The Hokkaido and northern Honshu in 1741–42;
newly constructed port of Kobe was devastated by and
widespread and severe liquefaction of the subsoil • a landslide on Augustine volcano, Alaska, in
and permanent ground deformation, which 1883 that triggered a tsunami that swept across
destroyed over 90 per cent of the port infrastructure. Cook Inlet onto the Kenai peninsula in Japan
Over 350 fires contributed to the damage bill, but apparently caused no damage (www.
mainly caused by ruptured gas mains. The total volcano.und.nodak.edu/vwdocs/volc_
damage from this earthquake was estimated to be images/img_unzen2.html).
up to 140 billion US dollars (www.dragonstrike.
com/mrk/disaster.htm). Noticeably, despite the
earlier Tokyo reconstruction experience, buildings Japan’s response to natural disasters
constructed before 1981 (largely concrete frame Even when significant problems exist in society
or wood) performed very poorly in the Kobe there is often no close correlation between these
disaster. However, post-1981 buildings constructed and appropriate policy responses from government
with strong concrete shear walls performed well, (Reich, 1984; Healy, 1989; Murphy and Bayley,
and this indicates that the revised building codes 1989; Hall et al, 2004; Prideaux, 2004). Such has
progressively introduced after the enactment of been the case in Japan with respect to many
the Disaster Countermeasures Basic Act 1961 environmental problems (Smith, 1975), although
have contributed to the protection of lives and never with respect to natural disasters. A problem
property from this form of disaster. becomes an issue for government through two
Compared with the earthquakes that are a basic mechanisms (Faulkner, 2001): 1) where
product of the same tectonic movements, actual communities and private organizations/individuals
volcanic eruptions in Japan are a much lesser form are faced with a problem and force public
of hazard. However, Japan has a long record of recognition by government (outside initiatives);
documented eruptions, starting with the eruption and 2) where issues that arise in government
of Mt Aso (central Kyushu, see Chapter 9) in discussions are given official sanction and are then
AD710. Mt Aso is the country’s most active expanded to include public support (the internal
volcano with more than 165 eruptions. Japan’s initiative – Hecko, 1974). The second of these
largest eruption in historic times was the Towada mechanisms was how Japan first developed natural
caldera (Honshu) collapse in AD915, and in 1792 disaster legislation through the pollution inspired
the collapse of the Mayuyama lava dome (Kyushu) Health Damage Compensation Law 1973, but
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