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processed to recover the value of its raw materials. Several companies offer recycling services as an
alternative to off-site disposal of obsolete printed circuit boards. These services typically process
the boards by removing raw materials of value such as gold, silver, copper, and lead from the board
(NFESC, 2002).
Scrap gold may include other metals including copper and zinc. Furthermore, gold may be
bound with various formulations of plastic and so must be recovered and purified for eventual
resale. Depending upon their composition, gold ores are treated by a variety of methods. Processes
commonly include gravity separation, amalgamation, cyanidation, and flotation. Some gold ores (or
scrap) may also be smelted and others may be roasted to process them for further treatment. In other
refining processes gold is treated with acids or chlorine gas that react with impurities but not with
the gold itself. Finally, the refined gold is melted and cast into bars or bricks.
The rest of the monitor is plastic that can sometimes be recycled; however, due to the hetero-
geneous plastics composition, the plastic portion usually has a negative or zero net value. A flow
chart showing e-waste recycling options appears in Figure 22.9.

22.7 INTERNATIONAL ISSUES IN ELECTRONICS MANAGEMENT

There is a substantial overseas market for used PCs and CRTs. The volumes of electronics being
shipped overseas are not accurately known; similarly, the uses of these waste electronics are
unknown. However, the prices that are being paid for used CRTs ($8 per each) indicate that reuse,
demanufacturing, and recycling are occurring (U.S. EPA, 2002b).
There is concern that a portion of U.S. e-wastes is being exported to less-developed countries
for processing and disposal; however, these countries possess neither the technology nor the infra-
structure to properly and safely recycle such wastes. As a result, some wastes are presumably being
treated and disposed under unsafe conditions.

22.8 BARRIERS TO RECYCLING E-WASTE
The infrastructure in the United States for electronics collection, reuse, and recycling is currently insuf-
ficient to manage the huge volumes of existing, not to mention projected waste volumes. Electronic
products have traditionally been designed for disposal and are difficult to disassemble, thus making
them expensive to recycle. E-wastes are bulky, posing transportation and storage problems. Finally
(and at the core of any recycling discussion), markets for reclaimed materials are poorly developed.
Requiring consumers and small businesses to pay the cost of recycling and disposal on the back-
end has been ineffective. Reliance on back-end disposal fees reduces incentives for proper recycling,
promotes “sham” recycling, and results in improper disposal which ultimately requires clean-up at a
cost to taxpayers (SVTC, 2001). IBM sold more than 3 million computers in the United States last
year and was the first manufacturer to establish a pay-as-you-go system for recycling obsolete com-
puters. The results have not been impressive. According to IBM, only a small fraction of annual sales
(less than 1%) have been recycled under the pay-as-you-go system (SVTC, 2001).
CRT manufacturers have enormous volumes of recycled CRT glass available to them. However,
transportation costs to a glass-to-glass recycler are often prohibitively high. E-waste contains many
types of highly engineered plastics which, although possessing a high resale value, are difficult to iden-
tify. Personal computers could be designed with a lower number of plastics; additionally, the manufac-
turing industry could standardize a selected number of plastics that can be easily identified and recycled.
The addition of flame retardants to plastics also poses practical and health problems for recycling.

22.9 PRODUCT STEWARDSHIP AND ELECTRONICS

Given the complexity of most electronics products, the inherent difficulty in their recycling, and the
sheer volumes produced, it is evident that improvements in their manufacture, using a more efficient