Page 289 - Algae Anatomy, Biochemistry, and Biotechnology

272 Algae: Anatomy, Biochemistry, and Biotechnology

in ponds and in the open waters of protected bays. These methods have since spread beyond Chile to
other countries, such as China, Indonesia, the Republic of Korea, Namibia, the Philippines and
Vietnam, usually using species of Gracilaria native to each particular country. Gracilaria
species can be grown in both cold and warm waters. Today, the supply of
Gracilaria still derives mainly from the wild, with the extent of cultivation depending on price
fluctuations. Agar production is valued at U.S. $132 million annually.

Alginate

Alginates are cell-wall constituents of brown algae (Phaeophyceae). They are chain-forming
heteropolysaccharides made up of blocks of mannuronic acid and guluronic acid. Composition
of the blocks depends on the species being used for extraction and the part of the thallus from
which extraction is made. Extraction procedures probably also affect alginate quality. Alginates
of one kind or another seem to be present in most species of brown algae but they occur in exploi-
table quantities (30–45% d. w.) only in the larger kelps and wracks (Laminariales and Fucales).
The more useful brown macroalgae grow in cold waters, thriving best in waters up to about
208C. Brown macroalgae are also found in warmer waters, but these are less suitable for alginate
production and are rarely used as food. A wide variety of species are used, harvested in both the
northern and southern hemispheres.
The ammonia and alkali metal salts of alginic acid readily dissolve in cold water at low con-
centrations to give viscous solutions. Alginates, especially sodium alginate, are widely used in
the textile industry because they form an excellent dressing and polishing material. Calcium algi-
nate, which is insoluble in water, has been used in the manufacture of a medical dressing very suit-
able for burns and extensive wounds where a normal dressing would be extremely difficult to
remove; the calcium alginate is extruded to make a fiber which is then woven into a gauze-like
product; alginates with a high proportion of guluronic acid blocks are most suitable for this
purpose. When applied to either a wound or burn, a network is formed around which a healthy
scab may form; the bandage may be removed with a sodium chloride solution, which renders
the alginate soluble in water. Alginates are also used as a thickening paste for colors in printing
textiles, as a hardener and thickener for joining threads in weaving; the alginates may subsequently
be dissolved away, giving special effects to the material. Other uses include glazing and sizing
paper, special printers’ inks, paints, cosmetics, insecticides, and pharmaceutical preparations. In
the U.S. alginates are frequently used as stabilizers in ice cream, giving a smooth texture and
body, and also as a suspending agent in milk shakes. Alginates take up atomically heavy metals
in a series of affinities; for example, lead and other heavy metals will be taken up in preference
to sodium, potassium, and other “lighter” metals; accordingly, alginates are useful in lead and stron-
tium-90 poisoning.
Approximately 32,000–39,000 tons of alginic acid per annum are extracted worldwide. The
main producers are Scotland, Norway, China, and the U.S., with smaller amounts being produced
in Japan, Chile, Argentina, South Africa, Australia, Canada, Chile, the U.K., Mexico, and France.
In the U.S., the giant kelp, Macrocystis pyrifera is used (Figure 7.13); it is harvested from large
offshore beds off the coasts of California and Mexico. Around 50,000 tons wet weight are gathered
each year using ships equipped with cutting machinery. Macrocystis has the distinction of being the
largest macroalgae in the world; the largest attached plant recorded was 65 m long and the plants
are capable of growing at up to 50 cm day 21 . Ascophyllum nodosum and Laminaria hyperborea are
used in Norway and Scotland. Ascophyllum is sustainably harvested in Ireland to produce macro-
algae meal that is exported to Scotland for alginate extraction. A decrease in the demand for algi-
nates in recent years has reduced this harvest to about 15,000 tons in 2001, yielding about 3000 tons
of meal for alginates. About 6000–8000 tons of alginates are produced from this and other
sources (kelp from Chile and Australia) in Scotland, but the amounts of weed used are not
known. Norway processes L. hyperborea, manufacturing about 5000 tons of high-quality alginates.