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SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF PROFESSIONS 141

work organizations, the self-control exercised collaboration has been particularly fruitful.
by professionals, and the control by customers One example of this is the productive con-
have changed and become more intertwined; trast between concepts, models, interpreta-
and as a consequence the organizational con- tions and theories developed and used by
text strongly determines the relations and the English-speaking sociologists and the orien-
conditions for professional work. Thirdly, the tations developed by French and by Spanish-
prevailing ideology and quest for profession- speaking researchers. The field has its own
alism demands more comparative studies of history and has developed in different ways
occupations in general and in the context of in these linguistic sociological communities.
the division of labour as a whole. These This chapter will review and assess the theo-
reasons are further developed and examined retical differences and similarities, focusing
in the ‘Introduction’ to Svensson and Evetts particularly on aspects of conflict, competi-
(2003). tion and cooperation in the interpretations.
This type of work and workers forms the
structural and institutional arrangements
for dealing with uncertainties in modern
risk societies. Knowledge-based work, occu- ANGLO-AMERICAN SOCIOLOGICAL
pations and professions are extensively INTERPRETATIONS: FROM
engaged in managing risk. In this sense, risk OCCUPATIONAL COOPERATION AND
assessment and the use of expert knowledge CONFLICT TO OCCUPATIONAL
enables customers and clients to deal with CONTROL
uncertainty. Knowledge-based occupations
control the conceptualization of problems In Anglo-American sociological interpreta-
and issues in their areas relating to risk, as tions and theories, the concepts of profession,
well as access to, and definitions of, possible professionalism and professionalization have
solutions. Examples of such groups range received considerable (sometimes critical)
from the old established professions of law, attention. Four phases can be identified and
engineering, religion and medicine to those each phase focussed on a different key con-
involved in service sector employment in cept which resulted in different theories and
education, health and social care – as well as explanations. The balances of conflict, com-
the newer categories of knowledge workers petition and cooperation in interpretations is
in areas such as information technology, different in each phase with cooperation pre-
management, security, leisure, the arts and dominant in the first two phases, conflict and
entertainment. Professionals and knowledge competition in the third phase and a focus
workers are also emblematic examples of more on aspects of control in the latest phase.
contemporary changes in public policy, in
corporate management and the organization
of work. Thus, social workers are coping Professionalism as occupational
with the crises of welfare in social services, value
engineers and lawyers have to manage the
‘new spirit of capitalism’ (Boltanski and In early British sociological analysis, the key
Chiapello, 1999), and most European profes- concept was ‘professionalism’ and the
sions are trying to find new methods of regu- emphasis was on the importance of profes-
lation in order to be able to deal with the sionalism for the stability and civility of
effects of globalization and European Union social systems (e.g., Carr-Saunders and Wilson,
expansion. 1933; Marshall, 1950; Tawney, 1921). In
The sociological study of knowledge- these interpretations professionalism was
based work, occupations and professions is regarded as an important and highly desir-
one in which international comparison and able occupational value and professional